ARMENITÀ, NICOLÁS. – Franciscan friar, missionary, explorer, and bishop in Bolivia, born in Bermedo (Spain) on 6 Dec. 1845, died in La Paz on 24 Dec. 1919. He completed his humanistic studies in Eborrio. As a young man he had an interview with the future Dominican martyr Berriochoa, to whom he later attributed his vocation. Having left Spain because of the suppression of religious orders, he took the Franciscan habit in the convent of Amiens in 1860; in 1864 he departed for Bolivia, where, joining the missionary college of La Paz, he was ordained priest on 29 Apr. 1869. Besides theological studies, he had already cultivated astronomy, mathematics, geography, and geology; then devoting himself to linguistic studies, he soon learned the Quichua, Aymara, and Guaraní languages. Eager to make contact with the Arianos and Pacaguaras, he undertook an expedition from June 1881 until 1883; thus he became the first to navigate the Beni and the Madre de Dios along their entire length. The report of this expedition was published in La Paz in 1883. Urged by the government to continue his explorations, he was again on the move in May 1884. From this journey he produced an accurate map of the course of the Madre de Dios, the Taramau, and other lesser rivers, and a complete knowledge of regions hitherto unknown and of the conditions of the tribes and groups of Araonas, Paraguaras, and Cavinas. Forced by a great flood to return, A. refused to leave his explorations incomplete; therefore he descended the Madre de Dios to reach, then, the Parà in Brazil (6 Mar. 1886), and in August the city of La Paz, where he wrote his simple and modest but scientifically valuable diary. The merits of A. in geography, ethnology, and linguistics were recognized everywhere. In 1888 A. was elected vicar and in 1891 guardian of the missionary college of La Paz; then general commissioner and visitor of all the missionary colleges in Bolivia and of the religious province of S. Antonio de las Charcas. At the request of the President of the Bolivian Republic, Pius X named him bishop of La Paz in 1911. His consecration took place in Sucre on 24 Feb. 1912 with an imposing participation of civil authorities and the entire population. At the time of his death the scientific world offered laws and tributes to his memory. A nearly complete list of A.’s published works is found in S. Mendizábal, Acción Franciscana en Sucre, Sucre 1921.
Bibl.: H. Polakowski, in Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, Berlino 1888; A. C. Nusser, Padre Armentias. Reise in der bolivianischen Provinz Caupolican, in Globus, vol. LX. Berlino 1891; M. da Civezza, Storia universale delle Missioni francescane, VII, IV, Firenze 1894; D. Fr. V. Schutz-Holshausen, Der Amazonas, Friburgo in Br. 1895; A. Groetcken, Bischof A. O.F.M. und die Erforschung der Rio Madre de Dios, in Anthropos, 2 (1907), pp. 730-34; Archivio de la Comisaria Francescana de Bolivia, I. Tarata 1909; id., III, IV, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, XXXI, XXXII, XXXIII, XXXIV, XXXV, XXXVI, XXXVII, XXXVIII, XXXIX, XL, XLI, XLII, XLIII, XLIV, XLV, XLVI, XLVII, XLVIII, XLIX, L, LI, LII, LIII, LIV, LV, LVI, LVII, LVIII, LIX, LX, LXI, LXII, LXIII, LXIV, LXV, LXVI, LXVII, LXVIII, LXIX, LXX, LXXI, LXXII, LXXIII, LXXIV, LXXV, LXXVI, LXXVII, LXXVIII, LXXIX, LXXX, LXXXI, LXXXII, LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXIX, LXXXI, LXXXII, LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, XXXVIII, LXXXIX, LXXXI, LXXXII, LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXIX, LXXXI, LXXXII, LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXIX, LXXXI, LXXXII, LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, 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LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXXV, LXXXXVI, LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI LXXXXVII, LXXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXXIX, LXXXXI, LXXXXII, LXXXXIII, LXXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXX
The same Maurits of Nassau (1567–1625), who later changed his mind, perhaps more for political and personal reasons against Oldenbarneveldt than for theological ones. Notable theologians such as Simon Episcopius (1583–1643), Uytenbogaert, a close friend of A. (1557–1644), and the famous jurist Grotius (1583–1645) were also involved. They reduced A.’s doctrines to five propositions, which, subscribed to by forty-five ministers, were presented to the States General in 1610.
These are known as the *Remonstrance* (remonstranties), and their supporters as the *Remonstrants*. The first established conditional election, i.e., dependent on God’s foreknowledge of faith in the elect and its absence in the reprobate. The second affirmed the universal validity of Christ’s atonement, in the sense that Our Lord willed it for all, though not all are saved. The third professed man’s inability to exercise saving faith or perform good works without regeneration by the Holy Spirit. The fourth declared that divine grace is indispensable for every act of spiritual life but is not irresistible. The fifth explained that the grace of the Holy Spirit is sufficient to overcome temptations and sins, but final perseverance is uncertain for all the faithful. The Arminians then elaborated this point by arguing that grace can be lost.
The controversy over these five propositions or articles of Arminian faith, called the “Quinquarticular Controversy,” could not be resolved either by the Hague Conference of 1610 or by that of Delft in 1613. Nor did a decree of the States General in 1614, which sought reconciliation and prohibited further disputes, have any effect. The Calvinists were so hostile to the Arminians that they refused to obey and demanded their suppression, even by bloodshed if necessary. Thus, the Prince of Orange, already anti-Arminian, and the States General convened the famous Synod of Dort or Dordrecht, which lasted from November 13, 1618, to the end of April 1619.
2. SYNOD OF DORT. — The Protestant historian Ganganelli (Calvino, p. 59) thus describes the Synod: “The Calvinist Synod assembled at Dort, under the auspices of Maurits of Nassau, was the last word in defense of Calvinist faith against the crisis that rationalism was opening in Protestantism. Later we shall have the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1643 and the Lutheran *Consensus Repetitus* of 1664, but the last word of integral defense, of heroic stubbornness, unreasonable though it was, was pronounced at Dort with the ‘five points’ of Calvinism [not ‘five points’ but ‘five heads of doctrine,’ each with many points] in the winter of 1618.”
Representatives came from Switzerland, France, England, Scotland, Transylvania, and the German Calvinists. The Synod’s attitude was absolutely one-sided. It refused to hear the Arminian doctrine, which was to have been expounded by Simon Episcopius, professor of theology at Leiden; indeed, it regarded him and his companions as accused and guilty parties who had only to defend themselves. Faced with this attitude, all the Arminians withdrew.
The five Arminian propositions were examined unilaterally. In five heads, corresponding to the five propositions, the Calvinist doctrine was first expounded in its strictest and most traditional sense, followed by the condemnation of Arminian doctrine. The first head, dealing with “De divina praedestinatione et annexis ei capitibus,” contains eighteen articles and the condemnation of nine errors; in all, twenty-seven canons. The second deals with “De morte Christi et hominum per eam redemptione,” with nine articles and the condemnation of seven errors; in all, sixteen canons. The third and fourth are grouped under the title “De hominis corruptione et conversione ad Deum, eiusque modo,” with seventeen articles and nine condemnations; in all, twenty-six canons. The fifth finally deals with “De perseverantia sanctorum,” with fifteen articles and the condemnation of nine errors; in all, twenty-four canons. These ninety-three canons are the famous *Canons of Dort*. The sentence was exceedingly severe. The Arminians were declared guilty of “corruptae religionis, scissae Ecclesiae unitatis, gravissimorum scandalorum et pervicaciae” and thus deprived of any ecclesiastical office, removed from their posts, and declared unworthy of holding any academic position until they should “give ample proof of serious repentance, in words, deeds, and studies contrary to their errors, to the satisfaction of the Church.”
Persecution was relentless. Oldenbarneveldt was condemned to death (1619), though it is said that Maurits of Nassau acted more from political and personal motives; three hundred ministers were exiled, and the rest were fined and imprisoned. Even the eminent jurist of world renown, Grotius, was condemned to life imprisonment, though he later escaped. Upon Maurits’s death in 1625, his brother and successor Frederick Henry proved more tolerant, so that some Arminians were able to return home, and Simon Episcopius was able to found an Arminian school in Amsterdam with anti-Trinitarian and universalist tendencies. The author, as such, has only a few churches in Holland.
3. **A. AFTER THE SYNOD OF DORT.** — But if the importance of A. as a sect is almost nil, as a doctrine it was and still is significant, for A. and his followers were staunch champions of the doctrine of *free examination*.
From the "free examination" of Holy Scripture, and without any contact or sympathy with the doctrine of the Catholic Church, A. deduced conclusions about the prescription of God, the universal value of the satisfaction of Jesus Christ, etc., which were much more akin to Catholic doctrine than those of any other heretic. For this reason, in England, during the Puritan ferment, the partisans of his doctrines were accused of being "papists." On the other hand, since the Arminians upheld the absolute primacy of reason in the individual interpretation of Holy Scripture, many of their followers inclined toward Socinianism (in the English colonies of North America, the names of Socinus and A. sounded identical), while others leaned toward rationalism. Finally, the Arminian doctrine that each person could derive his own individual interpretation from Holy Scripture gradually spread the notion that all ideas should be respected, and from this arose religious indifference, which led to religious tolerance among Protestants, at first only toward other sects and then also toward Catholics. An example of this Arminian polymorphism was seen in England. During the civil and religious wars of the 17th century, the name "Arminians" and also "papists" was given to all who denied Calvin’s decree, i.e., to the Anglicans of the High Church. After the restoration of the Stuarts (1660), a portion of the Anglicans—the Latitudinarians—who insisted on toleration of other sects in turn received the name "Arminians." A great propagator of Arminian doctrines in the 18th century was the founder of the Methodists, GIOVANNI Wesley, while his companion Whitefield rather embraced Calvinist doctrines and founded the Calvinist Methodists. Among the Scottish Presbyterians, renowned for their attachment to Calvinism, there are now not a few who have abandoned strict Calvinist doctrine and accepted Arminian doctrine. It is not rare to hear from them expressions such as this: "We are Calvinists when we pray, but Arminians in our works" (cf. R. H. Benson, Non Catholic-Denominations, London 1910, p. 94). The Waldensians are even more explicit; they form part of the "a. alliance of Presbyterian Churches." In the Compendium Manual of Fundamental Truths it is stated clearly: "The theory of a double predestination of some to salvation and others to perdition is not supportable by scriptural arguments and is repugnant to Christian sentiment." The Dutch themselves, who before A. had shown themselves such merciless persecutors of Catholics, a few years after the Synod of
