WARS OF SUCCESSION. — By the name of WARS OF SUCCESSION are understood the three wars concerning Spain, Poland and Austria which took place in the first half of the 18th century, ending with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
Charles II, king of Spain, on the eve of his death, reacted to the partition plans formulated by the Powers by nominating Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV, as his heir. The latter, whose hegemonic designs had been frustrated by the Peace of Ryswick, and who was watching for an opportunity to strike back, accepted the testament; and since he assured England and Holland that the new sovereign would never unite the two crowns in his person, Philip V was able to ascend the throne without opposition (1701). But when, shortly afterwards, Louis XIV confirmed Philip’s right to the French succession and recognized James Stuart as Prince of Wales (heir to the English crown), William III renewed the League of Augsburg and Charles, son of the Emperor, was set up in opposition to Philip and even succeeded for a short time in establishing himself in Madrid. Clement XI had offered his mediation and, taking up a plan of Innocent XII, had unsuccessfully proposed the formation of a league of Italian States to defend their neutrality. When these attempts failed, he tried to temporize, but his position was one of the most difficult, since the Kingdom of Naples, under Spanish domination, was a fief of the Church. On the other hand, Clement XI was at odds with the Emperor, also because the latter had granted the royal title to Frederick of Brandenburg. And the contrast became more acute when the Pope declared for France, while his recognition of the Stuart pretender aggravated the difficulties of English Catholics. The papal initiatives for a compromise, even with Joseph I, who succeeded Leopold in 1705, met with no success. In 1706, after the defeats of the Franco-Spanish armies and after the English fleet, having entered the Mediterranean, took possession of Gibraltar and Minorca, the Emperor adopted an even more hostile attitude towards the Holy See: his troops penetrated into the border territory and demanded free passage to move against Naples; in 1708 they occupied Comacchio and its salt pans. To the Pope’s protests, Joseph replied with war; and since he received no help from France, the Pope was forced to make peace and, in a secret article, engaged to disarm and to recognize Charles III as king of Spain. The defeats which placed the fortunes of France in extreme danger induced him to publish this recognition. But a vigorous French recovery restored military equilibrium and Philip V, victorious in Spain, consolidated his position on the throne. The situation underwent a decisive change with the death of Joseph I (1711). Elected to succeed him was Charles (Charles VI), and the Powers preferred to consider peace rather than favour the union in the same person of the imperial and Spanish crowns. By the Peace of Utrecht and the Peace of Rastatt, Philip V was recognized, but Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Naples and Sardinia, while Sicily was given to Victor Amadeus II. England obtained Hudson Bay and Newfoundland, Gibraltar and Minorca. France was obliged to recognize the Protestant English dynasty. The rights of sovereignty of the Holy See over Naples were entirely disregarded. The Pope succeeded only in obtaining the preservation of the clause of Ryswick, which safeguarded the Catholics in the ceded territories. Even after the failed attempt at revanche by Alberoni, the assignment of Parma to Charles of Bourbon and the cession of Sardinia to Piedmont in exchange for Sicily given to Austria took place without the Pope even being consulted. With the Spanish War of Succession, the Habsburgs replaced France in continental supremacy, while France, though retaining the acquisitions of Richelieu and Mazarin (Franche-Comté, Alsace and French Flanders), emerged from the conflict exhausted and saw its hegemonic aspirations finally collapse, while England expanded its colonial dominions and gained a foothold in the Mediterranean.
The emergence of Habsburg supremacy determined a reaction in the subsequent War of Polish Succession. In 1733, on the death of Augustus II of Poland, Austria and Russia supported the rights of Augustus III, while France and Sweden backed Stanislaus Leszczyński, son-in-law of Louis XV. The Austro-Russian faction prevailed in Poland, but the French in the West: Charles Emmanuel III, their ally, occupied Lombardy, while Charles of Bourbon conquered Naples. England, absorbed in internal affairs, did not intervene, but left the French fleet free action in the Mediterranean. Clement XII had at first recommended Augustus III, then, yielding to French pressure, declared for Stanislaus. In 1734 Vienna, in order to secure Protestant support, dropped the clause of Ryswick. By the Peace of Vienna (1738) Augustus III was recognized. Stanislaus received Lorraine, Francis Stephen of Lorraine Tuscany, and Charles of Bourbon Naples and Sicily. Austria found compensation in the restitution of Lombardy, imposed on Charles Emmanuel III, and in the cession of Parma. The Pope granted Charles of Bourbon the investiture of the Kingdom of Naples.
The weakening of Austria naturally corresponded to a resurgence of Bourbon power. And when, in 1740, on the death of Charles VI, France, Spain and the Bourbon courts of Italy, contesting the succession of Maria Theresa, waged war on Austria, supported by Frederick II who aspired to Silesia, England entered the field in support of Austria, as did Charles Emmanuel III who did not forgive France for having abandoned him in the negotiations for the Peace of Vienna. Austria was invaded by Charles Albert of Bavaria, who was proclaimed Emperor (Charles VII), but resisted and, by ceding Silesia to Frederick II, rid itself of an adversary. In Italy the Franco-Spaniards were defeated. In 1744 Frederick II reopened hostilities, while in Italy Charles Emmanuel III was forced to retreat into Piedmont to defend his invaded territory. But the coalition began to crumble. In 1745 Charles VII died and Francis Stephen was elected, whom Frederick II recognized. In 1746 Philip V died and his successor withdrew from the struggle. In 1747 the French were defeated by the Piedmontese at Assietta. They nevertheless prevailed in the Netherlands, but when England succeeded in obtaining the intervention of Russia, the government of Paris was induced to make peace. Benedict XIV had maintained an attitude of strict neutrality: when Austria was invaded he had proposed his mediation, but by refusing to head an Italian federation against France and Spain he had aroused the resentment of Vienna. When Charles VII was elected he recognized him, but the latter showed no regard for the Pope, and the Papal States were once again a battlefield between Spaniards and imperial troops. After the death of Charles VII, Benedict recognized Francis Stephen.
The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) sanctioned the succession of Maria Theresa and the election of Francis. Austria ceded Parma to Philip of Bourbon: this provoked a vigorous protest from the Pope, who in vain demanded recognition of his right of investiture, and could only obtain that for the duchy recourse would not be had to imperial investiture.
From the WARS OF SUCCESSION neither France nor Spain derived any advantage. Austria affirmed its predominance in Italy. England, by preventing the formation of a continental hegemony, consolidated its maritime power. These wars had serious consequences for the Holy See and for Catholics. Compelled by the lack of adequate forces to adopt a neutrality which displeased both sides, the Pope found no support in the Catholic courts, concerned only with their dynastic interests. And while the Protestant dynasty in England was consolidated and Prussia, also Protestant, grew stronger, the Church had to prepare to face jurisdictional disputes and the attacks of Enlightenment rationalism.