THE LAWS OF CATECHESIS — Passing over here the norms that general methodology offers for teaching, we shall limit ourselves to indicating those which must be followed in particular to fulfill the dignity and requirements proper to the transmission of religious instruction.
1. The method and its characteristics
a) Naturalness. The method must naturally conform to the nature of the hearers. Now, in children, intellectual life is more closely bound to the use of the senses, which are therefore called the gate of knowledge. It will accordingly be necessary to employ all those means (similitudes, parables, examples, narratives, images) that render sensible the ideas and abstract formulas in which religious truths are set forth in the catechism. With young people, in whom intelligence is becoming more refined, and with adults, reasoning will be better employed, and therefore those means which show the logical exactness of doctrine.b) Unity. The topics must be well defined and logically coordinated so as to form a harmonious whole.
c) Clarity, for exact understanding, which avoids doubts or false ideas.
2. The method with regard to the division of material
It may be: a) cyclical, if an attempt is made to develop the entire subject matter within a set time, then taking it up again several times with ever greater extension and depth; b) linear, if the material is divided according to a logical order and treated thoroughly once, without repetition or return.3. The method with regard to presentation
It may be: a) analytical, when it investigates all the details of a truth; b) synthetic, when it recalls, in its principles, what has been developed in detail; c) inductive, if it ascends from a fact to its cause; d) deductive, if it seeks the principle realized and alive in individual facts and phenomena; e) historical, if it deduces the truth from the presentation of ordered and connected facts; f) logical, if it rationally connects two or more successive ideas or facts; g) abstract, if it expresses concepts and ideas without support from facts; h) concrete, if it presents facts and things to demonstrate and support the ideas it wishes to clarify.All these methods have their importance and usefulness; but rather than rigidly adhering to one or the other, it is more beneficial to alternate or harmoniously blend them according to circumstances.
Much is spoken or written about the "active method," about "activism," which, as it is applied to other subjects, is equally well-suited to religious instruction. It is an ancient method, yet ever new, indeed constantly renewed according to the ingenuity, zeal, and activity of the teacher. It consists in applying the principle that the pupil not only wants to listen; the pupil must be encouraged to take an interest in the subject matter and, so to speak, to live II. Hence the many devices to which one usually resorts to arouse interest and participation. The principal ones, proven to be highly effective, include: gathering observations from the environment or from current events around a truth or precept; graphic representations and drawings; collecting poetry or clippings related to what has been discussed in the lesson; competitions; questionnaires to which the pupil must respond in writing; and "life notebooks," where the pupil records his impressions and resolutions regarding the truths he has heard.
The effectiveness, in terms of results, will depend on always keeping in mind the ultimate goal, which is the formation of the will and character, and on not confusing means with ends.
4. **Teaching aids.** — These are collateral means that, while sharpening interest, also help to better fix the truth in the mind, facilitate memory, and encourage practice: artistic and religious illustrations (churches, cathedrals, paintings, statues, shrines, famous works of art), geographical maps, still projections, films, attendance at liturgical functions accompanied by clear explanations that make participation in the rite more intimate and conscious (cf. L. Vigna, *L’introduzione nella istruzione religiosa*, Turin 1924; id., *Ai maestri. Linee e indirizzi pratici di didattica catechistica*, Milan 1931; both include extensive catalogues of aids, as do the appropriate catalogues published by *La Scuola* of Brescia).
5. **The catechism and pedagogy.** — The qualities of a good teaching method must also be reflected in the text of the catechism, which forms the first and most indispensable aid for religious instruction. Therefore, the text must provide: a) sound doctrine expressed in simple and clear forms that are easy to retain; b) appropriate, well-chosen, and attractive illustrations. The same applies to other "religious texts," which must avoid digressions, superfluities, and rhetorical flourishes, so that the pupil can clearly grasp what he is meant to study and retain (under the illustrative aspect, one may cite the publications of *Cultura religiosa popolare* from Viterbo, which cover catechetical topics and also Sacred History and Church History; and, as an example, the elementary school texts: *Il re dei libri*, by the Salesians of Turin; and the texts of Catholic Action for various types of religious schools).
6. **Memorization.** — The tendency to eliminate memorization is not a healthy one. Without resorting to deplorable parroting, it must be admitted that it is also necessary to know by heart the principal prayers for use in life, as well as the main formulas to avoid vague and unstable knowledge that easily degenerates into arbitrary interpretations and error. Memorization is moreover consonant with the nature of the child and traditional, especially since the 16th century, when Cardinal Bellarmine titled his small catechism *Dottrina cristiana breve*, "so that it may be learned by heart." It is further enjoined by Pius X in the letter of 18 October 1912, *Fin dai primordi*, prefacing his catechism: "In the first five grades of elementary school, the entire text in its catechetical part must be learned word for word, so that the fundamental truths of the Faith may remain firmly impressed upon the mind. It is nonetheless of the utmost importance that the pupil understand, in a manner befitting his age, what he learns; hence a twofold explanation is necessary: one of the words that may be more obscure (as far as possible) and the other of the content of the formulas to be studied. It is always advantageous, however, to require pupils to express in their own words the answers they have memorized."
7. **Catechetical centers.** — Of great utility for the pedagogical orientation of religious instruction has been the establishment of international, national, and diocesan catechetical centers, to which one may turn for assistance in all tasks of catechesis. Notable is the *Centre international d’études de la formation religieuse*, founded in Louvain (now moved to Brussels) in 1934 by the Jesuits, which since 1947 has published a quarterly journal, *Lumen vitae*, containing formative articles, discussions, expositions of teaching methods, religious texts, *Les dossiers «formation religieuse»*, synoptic tables, and pamphlets; it also organizes exhibitions, lectures, hearings, and projections, and provides a wide range of information services. In Italy, founded by Fr. Pietro Ricaldone, the fourth successor of St. John Bosco, is the Salesian Catechetical Center, established to promote the Catechetical Crusade among all classes; it consists of a Catechetical Office (1939) and the publishing house *La Dottrina cristiana* (1941). Twenty-two Salesians work in its direction and organization, spreading the catechetical idea through congresses, exhibitions, projections, diocesan outreach, and the compilation and distribution of texts and aids. Its affiliated journals include: *Catechesi* (since 1931), now in two editions: one for middle schools and one for parishes and oratories; *Teatro dei giovani* (for youth religious drama); *Voci bianche* (for sacred and recreational music); and various periodical columns such as *Lux* (catechism in examples for all), *Fidens fulgens, veritas* (for educated readers).
**Catechism.** — The term *catechism* is today used to denote a concise compendium of the principal truths of Christian faith and morals, set forth in a clear, precise, and easily comprehensible manner.
To consider, and predominantly in a dialogic form of questions and answers between master and disciple (catechism-book).
Originally it indicated, instead, a set of interrogations addressed to those to be baptized, in the atrium of the church, by the godparents, or to the godparents by the priest, and the responses received. “Ante Baptismum fit catechismus et exscoriscimus... Illa autem interrogatio et responsio fidei fit in catechismo” (Peter Lombard, *Sentent.*, I, 43); and also the oral and familiar instruction of essential religious truths, directed to children and adults still ignorant, after Baptism. From this meaning of catechetical exposition the term finally came to indicate the text that contained II.
This transition, however, did not occur so quickly; the term *c.*, in the sense of a book, was first used rather sporadically; then it received a kind of official sanction above all from the great propaganda made for Luther’s catechisms; soon after, it received official Catholic sanction from the Council of Trent; which was followed by the confirmation of the constant and almost universal use of the Church. Some, however, such as St. Peter Canisius, St. Robert Bellarmine, St. Francis de Sales, preferred, and still prefer today, the term “Christian doctrine.”
The variety of catechisms in different centuries is notable; in all of them, however, after a collection of prayers and formulas to be learned by heart (Creed, Acts of Faith, Hope, etc., Commandments of God and of the Church) there are more or less three parts: one concerns the truths about God, Jesus Christ, and the Church; another, morality; the third, the means provided by Grace. Often a fourth part follows, concerning liturgy in its rites and feasts.
**THE CATECHISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES FROM THE 7TH CENTURY TO THE COUNCIL OF TRENT.** — When entire tribes began to be converted en masse and were baptized before receiving sufficient instruction; and when the custom of baptizing children soon after birth prevailed, the Church faced the necessity of continuing or beginning religious instruction even after Baptism. Bishops of individual dioceses, synods, and councils (cf. CATECHESIS) constantly insisted on this duty incumbent upon parents and godparents at home; upon religious in convents and attached schools; and upon priests in church. It thus became natural that, to facilitate the task of instruction and at the same time to preserve a certain uniformity, manuals of instruction were composed for teachers, sometimes in dialogic form, and some were written more suited to the mentality and understanding of children and the common people.
Among the most representative manuals is the *Disputatio puerorum per interrogationes et responsiones* (PL 101, 1097-1144), from the time of Alcuin, which treats in ten chapters of the work of creation, of God, of angels and man, of the Old and New Testaments, of the Church and the Sacraments; and in two others it contains an *Expositio Symboli et Orationis dominicae* in dialogic form, in which the pupil asks and the master answers. This work constituted the normal catechesis from the 11th to the 13th century. Under the title *Incerti monachi Weisenburgensis catechesis theotisca saec. IX* (Hannover 1713, pp. 60-73), J. C. Eckard published a catechetical formulary, which he erroneously attributed to the monk Otloh of Weissenburg, containing in Old High German an explanation of the *Pater*, followed by a list of twenty “criminal sins by which the devil drowns men in hell” against the double precept of charity and the Decalogue; then the Apostles’ and Athanasian Creeds and the *Gloria in excelsis*. Other similar formularies follow, attributed to Cheron, abbot of St. Gall (ca. 750; ibid., pp. 81-86), and to Notker the Stammerer (d. 1022; ibid., pp. 79-81); and two formularies for confession (ibid., pp. 93-99) in which we see that the penitent confesses not only sins committed in thought, word, and deed against the commandments of God, but also regarding frequency and attendance at Mass, fasting, and spiritual and corporal works of mercy. Among others, we may also cite Bruno of Würzburg (d. 1045), who left some explanations of the *Pater* and the Creed, two of which are literally reproduced from the *Disputatio puerorum* (PL 142, 557-68); Abelard, who composed an exposition on the same topics (PL 188, 611-32); Bonzo, bishop of Piacenza (d. ca. 1090), with his *Libellus de Sacramentis* (PL 150, 857-66).
A more noticeable step toward modern catechisms is seen in the 13th century with the characteristic “lucidaries” or “explainers”; the first and most important of which is that of Honorius of Autun: *Elucidarium, sive dialogus de summa totius christianae theologiae* (PL 172, 1109-76). It is arranged in questions and answers and divided into three parts: the first explains the Creed, the second treats of physical and moral evil, the third of the last things. This notable work had an Italian translation and various reprints (Ferrara 1490; Milan 1493, 1496; Venice 1508) under the title: *Libro del maestro e del discipulo*. And a profound connoisseur of “lucidaries” must have been the anonymous Milanese, who composed one to bring light to children and the simple, under the title: *Qui incomincia el Libro del maestro e del discipulo* (Milan 1521 [cf. Tamborini, p. 39]).
After the “lucidaries” came the “sesternaries,” popularized by Hugh of St. Victor with his *De quinque septenis, seu septenarius* (PL 175, 405-14), so called because the dogma and morality were expounded in relation to the number seven (the 7 petitions of the *Pater*, the 7 beatitudes, the 7 capital sins, the 7 gifts of the Holy Spirit, the 7 works of mercy, etc.). The method, although somewhat artificial and not proceeding in a strictly logical manner, and therefore not approved by all, nevertheless gained good acceptance and maintained a notable influence. It was followed, for example, by St. Edmund of Canterbury (d. 1242) in his *Speculum Ecclesiae*, chaps. 8-18 (Maxima bibliotheca Patrum, XXV, Lyon 1677, pp. 319-23), and the Dominican Laurent in his *Somme-le-Roi* (so called because it was composed at the order of Philip III the Bold, his penitent), which was copied many times and circulated under various titles, e.g., *Le miroir du monde, Somme des vices et des vertus* (published in 1481, s.l.).
St. Thomas Aquinas also applied himself to this in his opuscules, begun in 1256 and representing an even more notable contribution to the formation of modern catechisms: *Expositio Symboli apostolorum* (opus. 16); *Expositio Orationis dominicae* (opus. 7); *Expositio Salutationis angelicae* (opus. 8); *De decem praeceptis et lege amoris* (opus. 4); *De articulis fidei et Ecclesiae Sacramentis* (opus. 5). In these, the Angelic Doctor omits in his simple and clear exposition the demonstrations and subtle questions, makes use of examples and comparisons drawn from ordinary life, and deduces practical norms of Christian life; above all, he demonstrates how the formulas of the catechism are coherent and interdependent so as to form an organic whole. Three things, in fact, he observes, are necessary for man to be saved: to know what he must believe, hope, and do; now the first he learns from the Creed, the second from the *Pater*, the third from the Decalogue and the two commandments of love, proclaimed by Jesus Christ. And since Grace is necessary for all this, hence the Sacraments (cf. C. Werner, *Der hl. Thomas V. Aquin*, I, Ratisbon 1858, pp. 123-58). These opuscules of the holy Doctor, united together and variously arranged and adapted, formed the framework of catechesis until the 16th century.
The 14th century offers us, among others, two noteworthy works: the *Catechismus Vauriensis* and the *Lay Folks’ Catechism*. The *Catechismus Vauriensis* represents the first text to which the name of catechism truly belongs, and we owe it to the decisions of the principal Synod of Lavaur, near Narbonne, held in 1369. It owes much to the opuscules of St. Thomas; but the doctrine is expounded in a strictly logical and complete order.
(Mansi, XXVI, cols. 48-93). The Lay Folk’s Catechism was composed by Cardinal Thoresby, archbishop of York, and published in Latin and English in 1357 to implement the constitution (1281) of J. Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, who had ordered that every priest, four times a year, should explain to the people «vulgariter, absque cuiuslibet subtilitatis textura phantastica» the Creed, the Sacraments, the two precepts of charity, the seven capital sins and the seven virtues (theological and cardinal) and had also issued a brief instruction on each point to serve as a guide (cf. Cath. Enc., V [1909] p. 78). It is worth noting that here the term “catechism” is used a century before Luther.
The 15th century marked a more decisive step toward the people and children. Up to that time, with few exceptions, catechetical manuals were mostly accessible only to priests for instructing the faithful; now, however, with greater urgency—since the need was ever more pressing—a text was envisaged to be placed directly into the hands of the people. Much of the credit goes to G. Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris (1362-1428), who in his letter on the reform of the theological faculty drew attention to the great usefulness of publishing and disseminating «aliquis tractatibus super punctis principalibus nostrae religionis et specialiter de praeceptis ad instructionem simplicium, quibus nullus sermo, aut raro fit» (Opera, I, Antwerp 1706, col. 124). And since no one took up his invitation, he himself composed three works: Compendium theologiae breve et utile (ibid., cols. 238-242); Opus tripartitum de praeceptis decalogi, de confessione et de arte moriendi (ibid., cols. 425-50); L'ABC des simples gens de très grande utilité et profit; and to defend himself against adversaries who accused him of almost betraying his dignity by teaching doctrine to children, he wrote De parvulis ad Christum trahendis (ibid., III, cols. 277-91). The same observations and invitations are echoed in the Provincial Council of Tortosa in 1429 (Mansi, XXVIII, col. 1147, n. 6).
The invention of printing, however, greatly favoured this movement, without which it would not have been possible to disseminate among the people, as was necessary, the appropriate booklets. One of the oldest, at least sixty years prior to Luther’s catechism, and whose arrangement and division into 13 parts reveals it to be a true catechism in the modern sense of the word, is attributed to St. Antoninus, archbishop of Florence, with the title: Libro della dottrina christiana, la quale è utile et molto necessaria che li puti pizoli et zovenzelli limpara per sapere amare, servire et honorare idio benedetto et schivare le temptazioni et peccati. It must first have circulated in manuscript form; its first edition date is unknown; the earliest reprint now known is that of Venice from 1473 (cf. P. Guerrini, Gli incunaboli del c., in Suppl. pedagogici della scuola ital. moderna, 5 [1937-38], pp. 96-97; P. Tacchi Venturi, pp. 337-39). It had various reprints but not wide circulation.
Meanwhile, Luther appeared on the scene. In order to spread his ideas among the people, in 1528 he published a small catechism for “simple children,” the Klein Katechismus, first in the form of charts so that it could be hung in homes, as had long been done among Catholics since the time of Charlemagne; then in a booklet, with the subtitle Enchiridion. In expounding the individual parts (Commandments, Creed, Our Father) he adhered to traditional usage, adding only two further parts on Baptism and the Eucharist. The form is in questions and answers, a model of simplicity and clarity, and in presenting the new doctrines avoids any mention of polemics against the ancient Church from which he had separated. The following year he published the Der grosse Katechismus, in which he intended to provide parish priests with a more extensive guide and explanation. The style is lively and flowing; but it is not in question-and-answer form. Here too Luther avoided polemics and even omitted some of his characteristic doctrines (e.g., original sin, which suppresses every disposition to good, the free interpretation of the Bible, predestination to Hell).
Both catechisms enjoyed very wide diffusion, also due to the ordinances of Protestant princes who imposed their use; and subsequently they were included in the Formula Concordiae (25 June 1580) as the symbol of the Lutheran Church. But the assertion on the part of Protestants that they were like a new creation sprung from the brain of the Reformation is far from the truth and requires thorough revision (cf. H. Grisar, Luther, III, Freiburg in Br. 1912, pp. 408-17), all the more so since they were not even the first in the field of the Reformation itself; they had been preceded, within the single four-year span 1522-26, by 39 others (cf. Monumenta paedagogica, XX-XXIII, Berlin 1900-1902; F. Mangenot, s.V. in DThC, II, cols. 1907-1908).
In the same way, the other confessions also had their catechisms. To cite a few: Calvin, after his major work De christianae religionis institutione libri tres (Basel 1535), which became the catechism of the Reformed in France, published two in French in 1534 and 1537; Martin Bucer (Butzer) published his Katechismen (Strasbourg 1534 and 1537), later revised in a Zwinglian sense in 1545; at Heidelberg in 1563 appeared the Heidelberg Katechismus, composed by two Calvinists at the behest of the Elector Palatine Frederick III, which spread widely in Switzerland, Austria, Holland and was the most famous of the catechisms after those of Luther (Z. Ursinus and C. Olevianus, Catechesis religionis christianae, quae traditur in eccles. et scholis palatinatus).
II. AROUND THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
The desire not to be outdone and also the necessity of forestalling dangers among the people and of meeting the adversary on equal terms even in the method of instruction proved very beneficial to Catholic catechesis, which produced a genuine flourishing of catechisms that was never to cease. In Italy, at least from 1540, there was printed in Milan that of Fra Tommaso Reginaldo, a Dominican, composed at the urging of St. Jerome Emiliani and long used by the Somaschi: Simbolo de Athanasio exposto per modo de dialogo dal ven. p. frate Reginaldo... per esercizio spirituale delli poveri orfanelli; it had various editions under different titles. Castellino da Castello worked out as early as 1537 the Interrogatorio del maestro al discepolo per istruire li fanciulli e quelli che non siano nella via di Dio (cf. A. Sala, Dissertazioni e note circa la vita e le gesta di s. Carlo Borromeo, Milan 1858, pp. 68-84). Also noteworthy is Tullio Crispoldi, a pupil of the Oratory of Divine Love in Rome, with Alcune interrogazioni delle cose della fede et del stato, ovvero vivere dei cristiani (Verona 1540); Bishop Luigi Lippomano with Esposizioni volgari sopra il Simbolo apostolico (Venice 1545); Bishop Leonardo de Marini with C., ovvero istruzione delle cose pertinenti alla salute delle anime... per la diocesi di Mantova (Mantua 1555). To these is added almost simultaneously a group of Jesuits, each with their own catechism, inspired by the needs noted in the field of ministry: G. Laínez in Parma; G. Domenech in Sicily; G. F. Araldo in Naples; A. Gagliardi in Milan at the commission of St. Charles Borromeo; G. Ledesma in the Roman College in Rome; E. Augier in France, etc.; then the Barnabites and the Scolopi with the texts already cited in the entry on catechesis (v.).
But the best and most widely diffused Catholic catechism of the 16th century was that of St. Peter Canisius in its three editions: Summa doctrinae christianae (Vienna 1555, Ger. trans., ibid. 1556), for use by catechists and educated persons, known as the major catechism; the very brief Summa doctrinae christianae per quaestiones tradita et ad captum rudiorum accommodatae (Ingolstadt 1556, Ger.
ted., ivi 1557) for children and the common people, in 59 brief paragraphs, called the *Catechismus minimus*. It first appeared anonymously, as an addition to the elementary Latin grammar, *Principia grammatica*, by Fr. A. Codret, in order to counter Protestant errors—such as those propagated by Melanchthon—through the same educational channels. Recognizing the need for an intermediate text for students, Canisius published two years later: *Parvus catechismus catholicorum* (Cologne 1558), known as the *Catechismus minor*, which also appeared under various titles such as *Catechismus catholicus* and *Instructiones doctrinae christianae*. Soon it was translated into German and other languages, both with and without illustrations.
This text became the most widely used, with over 400 editions. The three catechisms essentially form one work, differing only in the number and length of paragraphs, and in the depth of treatment of questions; yet they share a single criterion and a four-part structure based on the idea that Christian doctrine can be reduced to the knowledge and practice of wisdom and justice (Ecclesiasticus 1:33). Wisdom includes the theological virtues and the Sacraments; hence the first four parts: 1) faith = the Creed; 2) hope = the Our Father; 3) charity = the Commandments; and 4) the Sacraments. Justice consists in doing good and avoiding evil; hence the fifth part: 5) sins, works of mercy, virtues, gifts of the Holy Spirit, Beatitudes, evangelical counsels, and the last things. The language is concrete, practical, and steeped in Scripture and the Fathers, without any polemical tone or mention of errors; its merits were even acknowledged by Protestants (cf. O. Braunsh. Berg, *Entstehung und erste Entwicklung der Katechismen des sel. P. Canisius*, Freiburg in Br. 1893; S. P. Canisius, *Catechismi latini et germanici*, ed. F. Strieher, Munich 1933). The first Italian version of the *Summa doctrinae christianae* appeared in Venice in 1560, produced by Fr. Angelo Dovizi.
III. THE CATECHISM OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
After careful consideration and noting the religious ignorance of the people, the Council ordered the composition and publication of a manual for parish priests to use in preaching and catechizing, setting forth Christian doctrine in logical order (Sess. XXIV, *De reform.*, cap. 7; Sess. XXV), while allowing flexibility in the customary sequence (Creed, Sacraments, Commandments, Prayer) according to the needs of the audience. The Council also aimed to provide a single, uniform text, as the rule of faith was itself one and uniform. Pius IV promptly appointed a commission of four distinguished theologians: Leonardo Marini, archbishop of Lanciano; Muzio Calini, archbishop of Zara; Egidio Foscarini, bishop of Modena; and the Portuguese Dominican Francisco Foreiro, under the direction of St. Charles Borromeo. Within a year the draft was ready; it was then revised in classical Latin by the humanists Giulio Poggiali and Paolo Manuzio, who printed it under the title *Catechismus ex decreto Conc. Trid. ad parochos* (Rome 1566), better known by its common abbreviation *Catechismus romanus*. An Italian translation was immediately commissioned by the Pope and executed by the Dominican Alessio Figliucci (Rome 1566; cf. the recent edition by L. Andrianopoli: *Il catechismo romano del Concilio di Trento*, Vatican City 1946), followed by versions in other languages (cf. S. L. Skibniewski, *Geschichte des röm. Katechismus*, Rome 1903; P. Paschini, *Il catechismo romano del Concilio di Trento. Le sue origini e la sua prima diffusione*, Rome 1923; Pastor, VII, pp. 288–92; VIII, pp. 133–34). The work was universally acclaimed, and extracts and compendia were made for children. As regards doctrinal authority and value, it maintains primacy over all similar works (cf. I. B. de Toth, *De auctoritate dogmatica catechismi romani*, Budapest 1941).According to the four-part division of the Roman Catechism—1) Faith and the Creed; 2) Sacraments; 3) Commandments; 4) Our Father and prayers—with the addition of a fifth part (virtues, works of mercy, sins, last things)—Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, at the request of Cardinal Francesco Tarugi and by order of Clement VIII, composed his two celebrated catechisms: *Dottrina cristiana breve perché si possa imparare a mente* (Rome 1597), in a question-and-answer format for pupils; and *Dichiarazione più copiosa della dottrina cristiana per uso di quelli che insegnano ai fanciulli e alle altre persone semplici* (Rome 1598), in which the pupil asks and the teacher answers. Both enjoyed exceptional success; the first, however, was more widely used, with over 351 editions and translations into 58 languages and dialects, including mission territories (cf. Sommervogel, I, cols. 1187–1204; J. Brodrick, *Blessed R. Bellarmine*, I, London 1928, pp. 389–99; see also the recent ed.: S. R. Bellarmino, *I catechismi*, Milan 1941). St. Francis de Sales used them in his catechetical instruction and prescribed them to his priests. In Milan, Cardinal Federico Borromeo adopted them for his Christian doctrine schools, while later they were strongly opposed by the Austrian government under the influence of Josephinism and Enlightenment thought (cf. G. Schio, *La «Dottrina cristiana» del b. R. Bellarmino proscritta nella Lombardia austriaca*, in *Civiltà Cattolica*, 1925, I, pp. 403–15, 516–22). At the First Vatican Council, in the proposal for compiling a universal catechism, Bellarmine’s brief catechism was designated as the model.
IV. FROM THE COUNCIL OF TRENT TO THE PRESENT DAY
In the centuries that followed, the production of catechisms multiplied to such an extent that even a simple enumeration would be impracticable. It will suffice to recall the catechisms of Cardinal Fleury (1679) and Bossuet (1687), which were particularly important because they derived religious truths from historical facts, especially biblical ones; the catechism of St. John Baptist de la Salle (1703), entrusted to his Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools; the three catechisms of Benedict Strauch—the first for memorization, the second for understanding, the third for willing—which were soon adopted by Abbot Ignatius Felbiger (to whom they are erroneously attributed) for the schools of Sagan in Silesia (hence the name “Sagan catechisms”) and later imposed on all dioceses of Austria; the catechism of the Theatine Michele Casati, bishop of Mondovì (1765), which held sway throughout the 19th century; the catechism of Duplanopul (1862) and that of Rosmini (1838), composed “according to the order of ideas”; that of Christoph von Schmid (1836); and finally that of Joseph Deharbe (1847).Several catechisms appeared tainted with Jansenism and Gallicanism and were therefore condemned by the Church: for example, those by Claude Fleury (Paris 1695), François-Philippe Mésenguy (Utrecht 1744), Charles Colbert de Croissy, bishop of Montpellier (Paris 1702), and Pierre-Étienne Gourlin (Paris 1777). The last three, translated into Italian and published in various editions, were adopted in the dioceses of Scipione de’ Ricci, bishop of Pistoia, and Andrea Sgarallino, bishop of Potenza (cf. F. Gusta, *Sui catechismi moderni. Saggio critico-teologico*, Ferrara 1788). In Italy, too, the Napoleonic catechism was imposed by decree of Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais in 1807—though it was doctrinally sound (translated from the *Catéchisme à l’usage de toutes les Églises de France* [Paris 1806])—in which, at the Fourth Commandment, a special lesson was added: “Duties toward Napoleon I, our emperor and king.” This catechism provoked opposition from Pius VII, who refused to allow bishops to be deprived of the freedom to choose catechisms for their dioceses, since it belongs to the episcopate to teach the faith.
faith. But the Pope was unable to prevent its publication (cf. D'ThC, II, cols. 1951-53).
V. THE UNIVERSAL CATECHISM
The diversity of catechism formulas has always been an inconvenience, which people have tried to remedy since the need for a catechism-book arose. Already at the Council of Trent an attempt was made to compile a single text for the whole Church; but they only managed to produce one for use by parish priests and catechists, not for the people. At the Vatican Council the question was taken up again and debated at length; but the difficulties raised, inherent in the variety of languages, temperaments and needs of different nations, were so great that no conclusion was reached. Instead, a certain unity has been achieved in some countries.In Italy the first attempt at unifying the various catechisms was made by the bishops of Piedmont and Lombardy, who adopted, with slight modifications, the catechism of Monsignor Casati, bishop of Mondovì (1765). Subsequently it was also adopted by the bishops of Liguria, Emilia and Tuscany. Pius X, introducing a few changes, prescribed it (1905) for the dioceses of Rome and the Roman province, trusting that the others would adopt it «so as to arrive at that single text, at least for all Italy, which is universally desired». Then in 1913 he issued the universal catechism, in which the material is reduced to the bare essentials so as not to overburden the minds of children. In Austria a single catechism was produced in 1894, in Germany in 1924, following the decision of the Fulda episcopal conference in 1921; in France in 1928; in Holland in 1948. The episcopate of the United States of America, where the so-called Baltimore catechism had been in use since 1885, revised it and published it in 1941.
A notable attempt was that of Cardinal Pietro Gasparri with his *Catechismus catholicus* (Città del Vaticano 1930; Italian trans., Brescia 1932) in three separate parts or catechisms: the first for children preparing for First Communion; the second for those who have already received it; the third for adults; with copious notes on sources and abundant testimonies from councils, supreme pontiffs, the Holy Fathers and the Roman Congregations. But it was never officially approved and imposed for the whole Church, and thus remains a private work. — See Pl. LXII.