METAPSYCHICS. — From the Greek μετά (beyond) and ψυχή (soul); in Italian also: metapsychology, parapsychology, metagnomy, psychic research. Metapsychics may be defined as: a branch of experimental psychology, concerned with paranormal psychic phenomena that are neither pathological nor normal, but rather those facts which, while depending in some way on the psyche of a healthy individual, occur through a mechanism that is not the normal one (e.g., reading a sealed envelope without the use of sight).
To adequately distinguish metapsychics from experimental psychology, some authors (e.g., E. Boira, *La psychologie economique*, Paris 1912, p. 82; C. Richet, *Traité de métapsychique*, 1922, p. 5; R. Soudre, *Introduction à la métapsychique humaine*, 1926, p. 50) have assigned to metapsychics the study of rare, mysterious psychic phenomena, likely due to unknown faculties that psychologists have yet to explain. However, this is insufficient when one considers that, apart from their mysterious nature, these phenomena cannot be deemed rare. In 1900, there were reportedly about ten thousand people in the United States and Canada with mediumistic faculties (E. Morselli, *Psicologia e spiritismo*, II, Turin 1908, pp. 528 ff.), and by 1913 there were nearly seven million spiritualists worldwide and 129 periodicals devoted to the subject (L. Roure, *Lo spiritismo davanti alla scienza e alla religione*, Italian trans., Milan 1921, p. 332). From 1880 to the present, 150 major metapsychic experiments of an artistic nature have been recorded, corresponding to about five million individual trials; only Rhine and collaborators applied statistical methods to nearly a million experiments (v. CLAIRVOYANCE). Furthermore, metapsychics, with its numerous national and international, private and academic societies dedicated to the scientific promotion of such studies, along with its vast literature and the many scientists who engage in these investigations with methods of unquestionable rigor, demonstrates its aspiration to be an autonomous doctrine and effectively assumes a specific subject of study—at least from a practical standpoint—that justifies its operational autonomy. Hence the definition of metapsychics.
PHENOMENA. — The phenomena falling within the scope of metapsychics are generally divided into physical and psychic, with the caveat that all possess a psychic characteristic, inasmuch as they occur only in the presence of a human being, always through his—whether conscious or unconscious—assistance. Nevertheless, among the physical phenomena are those that do not necessarily manifest a psychic characteristic in themselves and could, strictly speaking, be produced by a merely material, i.e., non-intelligent cause (e.g., raps on a table or walls when they do not correspond to a conventional language).
Among the physical phenomena are listed: raps (knocks, noises, scratching, percussions); telekinetic phenomena (movements of objects without apparent contact, including the levitation of the medium or someone present [F. Bottazzi with the medium Eusapia Palladino, W. Crookes, J. Ochorowicz, A. F. von Schrenck-Notzing with the mediums W. and R. Schneider, F. Grunewald with the medium A. Rasmussen, E. Osty with the medium R. Schneider, W. Crawford with the medium Goligher, H. Price with the Schneiders, etc.]); luminous phenomena (flashes, phosphorescences, mists, flames, etc. [observed with mediums E. Palladino, D. Horne, W. Stainton Moses, S. Tomczyk, etc.]); temperature variations (in objects and the surrounding environment, cold drafts [observed, it seems, especially as cold air currents, with the mediums mentioned in the previous category]); chemical, magnetic, and electrical phenomena (variations in current in a circuit, changes in the power of a magnet, etc. [various observations on different phenomena were conducted by F. Zöllner, O. Murani, J. Ochorowicz, F. Grunewald, and others]); weight variations (generally of the medium, observed with balance or spring scales; at the end of the experiment, the subject regains his normal weight [W. Crawford with the medium K. Goligher]); apportation (the introduction of an object into a closed space [F. Zöllner with the medium H. Slade, E. Morselli with the medium E. Palladino, Oliveira Feijão with the medium d'Andrade, etc.]); the appearance of apparitions (complete or partial; it should be noted that such phenomena are not to be classified among psychic phenomena unless the apparition acts intelligently and purposefully [W. Crookes with the medium F. Cook, various experiments with mediums E. Palladino, E. Carrière, L. Gazzera, d'Andrade, D. Horne, F. Cook, Stainton Moses, Monck, Eglinton, Madame d'Espagne, F. Marryat, O. Corrales, A. Colman, Sambo, R. and W. Schneider, etc.]); ectoplasm (from Greek πλάσμα = figure, image, ἐκτός = outside; this term refers to a "sui generis" substance emitted by the medium, which, outside of him, assumes various forms [i.e., materializes] and, whether visible or not, is the agent of kinetic actions at a distance and the "quiddity" of which apparitions are constituted [the mediums with whom these experiments were conducted are those from the previous category and many others; notable are the experiments with Goligher]); ectoplasmic actions on matter (touching those present, impressions of faces and hands in plastic materials, photographs of ectoplasm, displacement actions, etc.).
Among the psychic phenomena are: clairvoyance (v.); xenoglossy (speaking foreign languages absolutely unknown to the subject; however, not repeating passages from memory, as these could have been heard before and subconsciously recalled when the subject is in particular psychic states); personality changes (these must not be attributable to hysteria: the new personality must exhibit content foreign to that of the subject’s normal personality [cases studied by C. Richet, H. Azam, P. Janet, W. F. Prince, Morton Prince, T. Flournoy, W. Deonna, H. Sidgwick, O. Lodge, J. H. Hyslop, etc.]); raps and sounds with intelligent and purposeful characteristics (it is not enough that they be produced in any manner; they must be true musical pieces or noisy actions interpretable as language through a conventional law; both must occur without physical contact on the part of the subject with the musical instruments or the objects where the noises take place); automatic writing (the subject writes not by his own will or intellect but as if guided by an external intelligence; it is clear that what is written must convey knowledge normally impossible for the recipient); direct voices (these are not vocal noises but authentic speeches and words; they are called "direct" because they occur independently of the medium and those present [mediums C. Centurione, G. Valantine, "Margery," E. Roberts, etc.]); local infestations (paranormal events—noises, footsteps, apparitions, lights, telekinetic actions, etc.—that occur in a particular place—house, garden, street, room, etc.—and persist over time. They are classified as physical or psychic phenomena depending on the aspect they present; often they are mixed.
CRITICAL EVALUATION. – Given that the purpose of science is to derive from facts the laws that govern them, the first necessity is to work with authentic facts; yet no field is more treacherous in this regard than that of metapsychics, on account of the vast mass of experiences it offers, which, however, in general provide minimal certainty of authenticity in relation to the very nature of the phenomena—phenomena that cannot be repeated at will and under the same circumstances, the mysterious and occult character of the facts, and the dilettantism of many incompetent practitioners that creates an enormous body of documentation almost devoid of any scientific value. On the other hand, such an extraordinary phenomenology demands greater guarantees than in other sciences, and the facts adduced must enjoy not merely subjective and private certainty, but public and scientific certainty, similar to that which exists in favor of countless phenomena and laws of physics. Yet precisely in the field of metapsychics, exaggeration, credulity, self-interest, and trickery play an enormous role. It suffices to recall how men such as C. Richet, W. Crookes, and A. F. von Schrenck-Notzing were deceived and remained convinced that deception did not exist (on this point, see especially: C. M. de Heredia, *Spiritism and Common Sense*, 2nd ed., New York 1922; A. Zacchi, *Lo spiritismo e la sopravvivenza dell’anima*, Rome 1922; F. M. Palmés, *Metapsíquia y espiritismo*, 2nd ed., Barcelona 1950).
One must not, however, fall into the exaggeration of denying everything; for it seems impossible that an edifice such as metapsychics is today could be founded on nothing. One may therefore affirm a scientific certainty of a general, relative value—namely, regarding the overall paranormality of the phenomena (while it is more difficult to verify which facts, within the categories listed above, are worthy of credence)—owing to the modern methods of control employed, especially in well-equipped university laboratories.
With regard to psychic phenomena, clairvoyance (q.v.) certainly enjoys scientific certainty. Above all after the experiments of J. B. Rhine, every doubt seems impossible. Premonition, however, leaves room for serious doubts, particularly when it concerns future events dependent on the free will of man. Some facts, nevertheless, must be admitted; but their number is, to date, so scarce as to fail to provide the required certainty. Almost no certainty exists for xenoglossy and direct voices; there is slightly more for automatic writing; and still more for raps. In any case, the balance is meager.
HYPOTHESES AND THEIR EVALUATION. – After such conclusions, it is easy to assess the importance of explanatory hypotheses of the phenomena; if, in general, they are worth less than the facts, when these are so little worth, the hypotheses are almost worthless.
Among the various hypotheses advanced, noteworthy is the spiritual hypothesis, according to which the phenomena—at least many of them—would be due to the disincarnate souls of the deceased. It is true that a certain number of facts occur, assuming they are true, as if the agent were a departed soul. But thus far it has not been possible to scientifically establish the identification of the cause of the phenomena with a deceased person (the proofs adduced are puerile; see, e.g.: O. Lodge, *Raymond or Life and Death*, London 1917); the entire question involved here will be examined under SPIRITISM.
Another hypothesis is that telekinetic phenomena, raps, materializations, etc., would depend on special energies and substances emitted by the body of the medium. These may be plausible hypotheses; yet to date every attempt to understand these energies and substances has proved futile. Some positive results do not withstand serious scrutiny (the experiments of W. Crookes with F. Cook, of A. F. von Schrenck-Notzing with M. Béraud [Eva Carrière], of W. Crawford with K. Goligher, of G. Geley with Kluski, etc., provide no assurance whatsoever). The matter, therefore, remains *sub judice*. The phenomena of poltergeist (from the German *poltern* = to make noise and *Geist* = spirit), of the same kind as “local infestations,” except that the disturbing entity has a noisy and mischievous nature, have been explained, among other ways, by the so-called “psychometric” hypothesis (E. Bozzano), according to which the personalities of the living leave “stable traces” in the places where they have dwelt, and these “traces,” under special conditions and through the influence of particular psychic actions of those who later come to inhabit the same place, produce objective revivals of a noisy and fantastic character. The hypothesis is not without some foundation. Another theory (T. Zöllner, G. B. Bernard), intended especially to explain apport phenomena, is that of the “fourth dimension”; according to this doctrine (abusively based on the thought of A. Einstein), objects would be capable of penetrating into a closed place or of exiting by moving along the aforementioned fourth dimension. If one considers that this fourth dimension is time, one sees how this hypothesis lacks any basis; the error consists in regarding the fourth dimension as being of the same nature as the three spatial dimensions. Laymen are led astray by the fact that, in mathematical formulations, time—considered only in its purely numerical metric properties—may be assimilated to the dimensions of space; but these are, as is evident, mathematical schemes far removed from the integral physical reality of things. Other explanatory hypotheses are of lesser importance (see CLAIRVOYANCE for those relating to this phenomenon). Rather, the conclusion is that one proceeds in the dark. To this end, the book by H. Price (*A caccia degli spiriti*, Milan 1937) is striking, in which the author—a most self-critical student of metapsychics and president of the “National Laboratory of Psychical Research” at the University of London—sums up his long years of experience in an amusing yet desolating uncertainty. It is therefore surprising to see how scholars of value (e.g., E. Servadio, W. Mackensic, etc.) affirm as absolutely true phenomena for which even a glimmer of scientific certainty is lacking.
MORAL EVALUATION. – From a practical standpoint, metapsychic experiments are to be discouraged for those who lack serious preparation and a firm and balanced mind; for the occult character of the phenomena, the apparatus within which they are claimed to be produced, and the mentality of the persons who engage in these experiments can quickly lead to infatuation, fanaticism, imbalance of organic functions, and mental disorganization. Unfortunately, cases of this kind are numerous. Moreover, the not-excluded possibility of thereby coming into contact with evil spirits (demons) aggravates the illicit aspect of such practices. It is true that the decrees of the Church against spiritism and necromancy do not explicitly include metapsychics, so that for it a positive prohibition does not seem applicable (unless, in fact, the experiments are identical with spiritistic practices). Nevertheless, foreseeing that the studies and, above all, the experiments of metapsychics may prove harmful to the mental equilibrium and religious faith of the individual, they remain forbidden to him by natural and positive divine law (no one may, without just cause, place his physical and spiritual health in danger); therefore, it is advisable that the faithful, before engaging in metapsychic experiments, consult ecclesiastical authority and obtain the necessary permission. One must indeed recall that the step from metapsychics to spiritism is a short one (see: A. Tondi, *Dottrina cattolica e metapsichica*, in *Ulisse*, II [1948], pp. 70 ff., Rome).
HISTORY. — It remains only to present a few notes on the history of metapsychics. From the very dawn of humanity, the evocation of the dead has been spoken of (Book of the Dead; Deut. 18:9–12; 1 Reg. 28; Herodotus, I, 92; Pausanias, III, 17; Plutarch, De sera numinis vindicta, X, XVII; Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, I, 8; Horace, Satires, I, 8; Pliny, Natural History, XL, 5; Tacitus, Annals, II, 28; Tertullian, Apology, XXIII; Lactantius, Divine Institutes, IV, 27; Gregory of Nazianzus, Against Julian, XCII; etc.). Necromantic practices and customs are found at all times and in all places, among both savage and civilized peoples; but modern spiritualism began with the experiments of Mesmer and, more precisely, with those of the Fox sisters in Hydesville (USA, 1848). Soon the evocation of the dead spread everywhere; yet almost simultaneously, there were men who sought to detach research from the spiritualist hypothesis, in order to study it with a mind free from prejudice, seeking the objective cause, whatever it might be. Thus arose metapsychics, or scientific psychic research, and gradually the private and state institutes, whether university-affiliated or not, devoted to such studies, equipped with special experimental laboratories. Among these may be cited: the “National Laboratory of Psychical Research,” attached to the University of London; the “Laboratory of Parapsychology” at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina; the “Society for Psychical Research” in London (SPR, 1882); the “American Society for Psychical Research” (Boston, 1885); the “Institut métapsychique international” (Paris, 1919); the “Società italiana di metapsichica” (SIM, 1941); and others. Nevertheless, despite these institutes and the best intentions of researchers, metapsychics has still today emerged only in small part from the sphere of vulgar empiricism and spiritualism, so that alongside serious publications and experiments, there accumulates a mass of worthless studies and writings, apt to confuse minds and bring discredit upon this field of research.