ABBADESSA. — A word derived from the Late Latin abbatissa, itself formed by analogy with abbas (abbot, father), the title of the Superior entrusted with the governance of an independent monastery of nuns. The monasteries of women belonging to the ancient monastic Orders possessed an abbess; so did those of the Canonesses, both those with vows and those without vows; of the Poor Clares, who in the first rule given to them by Cardinal Ugolino (1218–19) formally professed the Rule of St Benedict, but in reality lived according to Ugolino’s Rule; and also of the Conceptionists founded by the blessed Beatrice da Silva (15th century), at first Cistercian and then, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, rather Franciscan.
1. HISTORY
The earliest examples of this title are found in funerary inscriptions collected by E. Diehl (Inscriptiones latinae christianae veteres, I, Berlin 1925, p. 321, nos. 1650–53), namely: that of Rome, which commemorates Serena, abbess of S. Agnese fuori le mura, from the year 514; that of Capua Vetere, which commemorates Giustina, from the year 569; that of Narbonne, which mentions Maria, from the sixth century; and that of Salona (Spalato), concerning Giovanna, from the sixth century. In the literature, this title does not appear before the writings of St Gregory of Tours (d. 594) and the registers of St Gregory the Great (d. 604), who in the Dialogues (book IV, ed. U. Moricca, Rome 1924, p. 248) nevertheless uses the more logical name mater (mother).With the propagation of the Rule of St Benedict (which naturally speaks only of the abbot), the title abbess became general throughout the West, including among the Canonesses, who followed the rule given to them at the synod of Aachen (816) or, from the eleventh century, that of St Augustine. The abbesses of several ancient monasteries, especially in Germany, also became Princesses of the Empire, with the honours and obligations of that rank; and they could attend, or be represented at, the diets of the Empire and at synods. All abbesses elected for life received, and for the most part still receive today, the liturgical blessing from the bishop, like the ancient deaconesses; some also received the abbess’s pastoral staff. The abbesses of the Poor Clares, for a long time likewise elected for life but later only for a three-year term, have never received the liturgical blessing, nor do they seem to have possessed the pastoral staff. It should also be noted that the abbesses of Carthusian nuns use the maniple and stole. Canonists and modern historians dispute whether the aforementioned canoness-abbesses may or may not be numbered among the clergy.
The Council of Aachen of 789 orders bishops to forbid abbesses to bless men and to impose the veil upon virgins (can. 75).
Innocent III (Registro XIII, no. 187: PL 116, 356) severely condemns the intolerable abuse of certain abbesses in the dioceses of Burgos and Palencia in Spain, who dared to bless their own nuns, hear their confessions, read the Gospel, and preach. In prohibiting this abuse, the Pontiff rightly observes that the Blessed Virgin Mary was certainly more worthy and more excellent than the apostles, but that the Lord gave the keys of the kingdom of heaven to the latter and not to her.
In some double monasteries (v. COABITAZIONE), the abbess held command over the monks and the nuns, as in the monastery of Fontevrault in France (founded in 1099), and in the Order of the Most Holy Saviour founded by St Bridget of Sweden at Vadstena.
There are also several examples of convents of women in which the abbess seems to have exercised an almost episcopal jurisdiction over the clergy and people of her territory, always excepting functions requiring the Sacrament of Orders, which were performed by a priest-vicar. In such cases the abbess appointed to benefices and exercised disciplinary jurisdiction over the people and clergy. When in 1222 the Canonesses and clergy of Quedlinburg (Saxony) refused to obey the abbess’s orders because she could not compel them by excommunication, she appealed to Honorius III, who strongly supported her in the reply inserted in the Decretals of Gregory IX (chap. 12, X, I, 33), providing that the Canonesses and clergy, abbatissae praefatae obedientiam et reverentiam debitam impendentes, eius salubria monita et mandata observent.
In Italy, the abbey of S. Benedetto di Conversano in Apulia is famous. In 1266 it was given to Cistercian nuns who had fled from the nearby East; its abbess exercised, through a vicar, an almost episcopal jurisdiction in the abbey fief of Castellana, nearly up to modern times. When the last abbess who had exercised this jurisdiction died (1809), her funeral was conducted as though she had been a bishop (v. MORMONI, Dizionario, vol. 95 [1859], p. 163). Regalism undoubtedly contributed greatly to maintaining for so many centuries an institution of this kind, which Baronius called monstrum Apuliae.
In 1258 Alexander IV granted the Vallombrosan abbey nullius of Fucecchio to the Poor Clares of Gattaiola at Lucca. When, in 1299, they ceded the land to the Friars Minor, they reserved the right to appoint to the ecclesiastical benefices of the former abbey. (Cf. the document in Archivum frane. hist., 10 [1917], p. 469 ff.). In fact, the abbess, through a vicar in spiritualibus, exercised jurisdiction over Fucecchio until 1622, when the territory was incorporated into the new diocese of San Miniato (ibid., 11 [1918], p. 284).
Another monastery whose abbess exercised temporal jurisdiction and, in the manner described, also spiritual jurisdiction, was the Cistercian monastery of S. Maria de las Huelgas near Burgos, Spain, founded in 1187 and endowed with great privileges from the outset. Perhaps Innocent III was already targeting it in the constitution mentioned above. Here too, regalism and the high nobility, to which the abbesses often belonged, helped preserve such an extraordinary position until the last century. It came to an end when Pius IX, by the constitution Quam diversa of 12 July 1873, suppressed in Spain all quasi-episcopal ecclesiastical jurisdictions, that is, those not subject to the authority of diocesan bishops; the measure took effect on 20 May 1874.
The cases mentioned, judged differently by canonists and theologians, constitute the great exception, partly explicable by the conditions of the time and by feudal ideas, now fortunately overcome. The Church tolerated these anomalies, but in no papal document is the term abbess nullius (diocesis) explicitly found.
Over the centuries there have been many holy women among the abbesses, women of outstanding merit and great religious and cultural influence. At the time of the pseudo-Reformation, some resisted the innovators heroically, such as the abbesses of Gandersheim (Germany) and Carità Pirkheimer O. S. Cl. in Nuremberg.
For Conversano: Ughelli, VII, 2nd ed., pp. 700–11; G. Moroni, Dizionario, vol. 95 (1859), pp. 161–64; S. Simone, Il mostro della Puglia, ossia la storia di S. Benedetto di Conversano, Bari 1885; D. Morea, Chartularium del monastero di S. Benedetto di Conversano, I. Montecassino 1892. Continuation in D. Morea – F. Muciccia, Le pergamene di Conversano, Trani 1942.
For S. Maria de las Huelgas: H. Flórez, España Sagrada, XXVII, 2nd ed., Madrid 1824, pp. 287-308, 466-69; A. Rodríguez López, El Real monasterio de las Huelgas de Burgos y el Hospital del Rey, 2 vols., Burgos 1907; P. I. Postius y Saba, El Código canónico aplicado en España, Madrid 1926; J. M. Escrivá, La abadesa de las Huelgas, estudio histórico canónico, Madrid 1944.
For double monasteries: M. Saché, Les abesses de Fontevrault, Angers 1921; S. Hilpisch, Die Doppelblöster, Münster 1928; P. Debongnie, Brigitts, in DHG, X, cols. 728-31.
Livario Oliger
2. BENEDIZIONE dell'A
The new abbess, after confirmation of her appointment, receives the blessing from the bishop of the diocese during Mass, on a Sunday or another feast day. After the epistle, the abbess, accompanied by two elderly nuns, leaves her stall in the choir and goes before the bishop seated on the faldstool, where she pronounces the formula of fidelity and takes the oath with her hands resting on the Gospel. She then hands the bishop a signed declaration of this fidelity and submission. The litany of the Saints follows, during which the abbess lies prostrate on the ground. Finally, the bishop rises and blesses the new abbess, who then rises and kneels before the celebrant, who, with his hands extended over her head, pronounces a prayer in the form of a preface, followed by various prayers. Once the abbess has returned to her place, the bishop continues the Mass. At the offertory the abbess offers the celebrant two lighted candles, and at the end, after her enthronement in the choir stall, the Te Deum is sung.3. DIRITTO CANONICO
According to can. 488, no. 8, the abbess must be considered a superiora maggiore, and consequently the special provisions concerning major superiors are applicable to her. She is elected by the community, in accordance with the norms laid down by the Code and by the legitimately approved constitutions. She must have been born in lawful wedlock, be forty years of age, and have been professed for at least ten years in the religious order in which she is currently a member. Election is ordinarily by secret ballot and must be confirmed by the bishop, if the monastery is not exempt; by the regular superior or the Holy See, if it is exempt. According to the circular letter of the S. Congregation of Religious of 2 March 1920, the abbess holds office for three years and may not be immediately re-elected, that is, without some interval, except by special dispensation of the Holy See. She possesses dominative power over her subjects, in accordance with the constitutions and common law. Her functions and duties concern especially admission into religion, religious profession, enclosure, and the observance of rules and constitutions. She is subject to particular sanctions in the cases provided for by cann. 2412-14.Felice M. Cappello