CONCLUSION. - The great historical fact of the C. thus came to an end with the closing of the Middle Ages and the strengthening of the national States. If it had been an expression of the medieval unity of thought and action, of religion and activity, it was no less true that, through it, upon coming into contact with the East and by the very force of the conflicts, the West had become conscious of itself, had seen the relationship among its various parts, and had developed its unity in a supranational sense. From the relationship, at first unfavorable, its superiority had slowly emerged, even economically, together with the development of a broader and more humane civilization. And while the Mongol invasion simultaneously extinguished the last lights of Byzantine and Islamic civilization, Western culture had reached its highest degree. - Vedi tav. LXVI.
BIBL. On the Saracen incursions into the West: J. Reinaud, Invasions des Sarrazins en France, Paris 1836; M. Amari, Storia dei musulmani di Sicilia, Florence 1844 (new ed., Catania 1930, updated); P. Martini, Storia delle invasioni degli Arabi e delle piraterie dei Barbareschi in Sardegna, Cagliari 1861; J. Wellhausen, Die Kämpfe der Araber mit den Römern in der Zeit der Umajaden, Gottling 1901; J. Gay, L'Italie méridionale et l'empire byzantin depuis l'avènement de Basile Ier jusqu'à la prise de Bari par les Normands (867-1071), Paris 1904; G. Lokys, Die Kämpfe der Araber mit den Karolingern bis zum Tode Ludwigs II., Heidelberg 1906.
On the expansion of Islam, V. the classic work of A. Müller, Der Islam in Morgen-und Abendland, 2 vols., 2nd ed., Berlin 1885-87.
On the Byzantine Empire: A. Rambaud, L'empire grec au Xe siècle, Paris 1870; G. Schlumberger, Un empereur byzantin au Xe siècle (Nicéphore Phocos), there 1870; id., L'épopée byzantine à la fin du Xe siècle, 3 vols., there 1896-1905; K. Neumann, Die Weltstellung des byzantischen Reichs vor den Kreuzzügen, Leipzig 1894; A. Gruhn, Die byzantinische Politik z. Zeit d. Kreuzzüge, Berlin 1904; F. Chalandon, Les Comnènes, I. Essai sur le vigne d'Olexis I Comnène (1081-1118), Paris 1905; H. Jean II Comnène (1118-43) et Manuel Comnène (1143-80), there 1912; G. Schlumberger, Byzance et les Croisades, Pages médiévales, there 1927; A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantin empire, 2 vols., Wisconsin 1928-29.
On the C. in general: after the older works of J. Michaud, Histoire des Croisades, Paris 1812-17, and F. Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge, Leipzig 1807-32, historiography on the C. assumed a scientific character, inaugurated by H. V. Sybel. Following his work came: A. Röhrich, Beiträge zur Gesch. d. Kreuzzüge, 2 vols., Leipzig 1878, and Geschichte d. Kreuzzüge, Innsbruck 1898; B. Kugler, Gesch. der Kreuzzüge, Berlin 1880, 2nd ed., there 1891 (Italian trans. by T. Sanesi, Milan 1878, in the Storia universale dell'Onchese); L. Bréhier, L'Eglise et l'Orient au moyen âge. Les Croisades, Paris 1907 (2nd ed., there 1928); W. B. Stevenson, The Crusades in the East, Cambridge 1907; A. V. Ruville, Die Kreuzzüge, Bonn 1920; E. Barker, The Crusades, London 1923; N. Jorga, Breve hist. des Croisades et leurs fondations en Terre Sainte, Bucharest 1924. Also, though with a more specific focus: E. Heyck, Die Kreuzzüge u. das Heilige Land, Leipzig 1900; E. Bridney, La condition juridique des croisés et le privilège de la croix, Paris 1901. The fundamental comprehensive work is now that of R. Grousset, Histoire de Croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem, 3 vols., Paris 1932-38. E v., by the same author, L'épopée des Croisades, there 1939. On the emergence of the idea of the C., the fundamental volume is C. Erdmann, Die Entstehung des Kreuzzugsgedanken, Stuttgart 1932, which goes back to the most distant origins; moreover O. Volk, Die abendländisch-hierarchische Kreuzzugside, Halle 1911; E. Delavalle, Essai sur la formation de l'idée de Croisade, in Bull. de littérature ecclési., 42 (1941), pp. 24-45, 86-103; 45 (1944), pp. 13-46, 73-90; F. Cognasso, La genesi delle C., Turin 1934; M. Villey, La Croisade. Essai sur la formation d'une théorie juridique, Paris 1942.
On the first C.: H. Hagenmeyer, Chronologie de la première croisade, in Rev. de l'Orient latin, 6 (1868), pp. 314-93; 490-549; 7 (1890), pp. 277-339; 430-503; 8 (1900-1901), pp. 318-382; H. V. Sybel, Gesch. d. ersten Kreuzzuges, 2nd ed., Leipzig 1881; R. Röhrich, Gesch. d. ersten Kreuzzuges, Innsbruck 1901; F. Chalandon, Histoire de la première Croisade jusqu'à l'élection de Godefroy de Bouillon, Paris 1925; P. Rousset, Les origines et les caractères de la première Croisade, Neuchâtel 1945; A. C. Krey, Urban's crusade. Success or failure, in American history, Rev., 23 (1948), pp. 235-50.
On the Crusader States and Latin institutions in the East, in addition to Grousset’s work: L. Rey, Les colonies franques de Syrie au XIIe et XIIIe siècle, Paris 1887; P. Röhrich, Regesta Regni hierosolymitani (1097-1291), Innsbruck 1903 and 1904 (Additamentum); E. Parodi, Storia dei Cavalieri di S. Giovanni di Gerusalemme, Bari 1907; R. Bailey-Yewdale, Boemond I prince of Antioch, Wisconsin 1924; C. Enlart, Les monuments des Croisés dans le royaume de Jérusalem, Architecture rel. et civile, Paris 1925-28; G. Dodu, Hist. des Institutions monastiques dans le royaume latin de Jérusalem, Luxembourg 1928; R. Manselli, Normanni d'Italia alla prima C.: Boemondo d'Altavilla, in Iapigia, 11 (1940-41), pp. 45-79, 145-84; I. L. La Monte, The lords of Sidon in the XIIIth and XIIIth cent., in Byzantion, 17 (1944-45), pp. 183-211.
On German participation in the C.: R. Röhrich, Die Deutschen im Heil. Lande, Innsbruck 1894; D. Pilgerreisen nach d. Heil. Lande, edited by R. Röhrich and M. Meisner, Innsbruck 1880; on the crusading intervention in Portugal: C. Erdmann, D. Kreuzzugsgedanke in Portugal, in Hist. Zeitschrift, 141 (1930). On Italian participation, including that of later periods: G. Errera, I Crociati veneziani in Terra Santa, in Arch. ven., 38 (1890), pp. 338-77; A. Main, I Pisani alle prime C., Livorno 1894; C. Manfroni, Le relazioni fra Genova, l'Impero bizantino e i Turchi, in Arch. stor. lig., 28 (1898); A. Chiocchini, I Pisani all'assedio di Gerusalemme, Pisa 1901; L. Usseglio, I marchesi di Monferrato in Italia e in Oriente durante i sec. XII e XIII, Turin 1926.
On the Second Crusade: B. Kugler, Studien z. Gesch. d. zweiten Kreuzzuges, Stoccarda 1866; id., Annal. z. Gesch. d. zweiten Kreuzzuges, Tubinga 1878; C. Neumann, Bernhard V. Clairvaux u. die Anfänge d. zw. Kreuzz., Heidelberg 1882; E. Vacandard, St Bernard et la seconde Croisade, in Rev. d. quest. hist., 38 (1885), pp. 398-457.
On the Third Crusade: A. Cartellieri, Philipp II. August, König V. Frankreich, II; Der Kreuzzug (1187-91), Lipsia 1906 and Richard Löwenherz im hlg. Lande, in Hist. Zeitschrift, 1908;
R. Röhrich, Die Rüstungen d. Abendlandes z. dritten Kreuzz., in Hist. Zeitschrift, 1903; E. Traub, Der Kreuzzugspan Kaiser Heinrichs VI., Jena 1910.
On the Fourth Crusade: H. Klimke, Die Quellen z. Gesch. d. vierten Kreuzzuges, Breslavia 1875 and E. Gerland, Der vierte Kreuzzug u. seine Probleme, in N. Jahrbücher f. d. Klass. Altertum, 13 (1904); I. Tessier, La quatrième Croisade, Parigi 1884; E. Pears, The fall of Constantinople: the story of the Fourth Crusade, Londra 1885; W. Norden, Der vierte Kreuzzug in Rahmen der Beziehungen des Abendlandes zu Byzanz, Berlino 1898 and Das Papsttum u. Byzanz. Die Trennung d. beiden Mächte u. der Problem ihrer Wiederreinigung bis 1453, there 1903; A. Luchaire, Innocent III, La question d'Orient, Parigi 1907; H. Gregoire, The question of the diversion of the fourth crusade, in Byzantion, 15 (1940-41), pp. 158-66.
For particular points: L. Streit, Venedig u. die Wendung d. vierten Kreuzz. gegen Konstantinopel, Zagabria 1877; P. Riant, Innocent III, Philippe de Soube et Boniface de Montferrant, in Rev. des quest. hist., 17 (1875), pp. 321-74; id., Le changement de direction de la IVe Croisade, ibid., 18 (1875), pp. 5-75; F. Cerone, Il Papa e i Veneziani nello quarto Crociato, in Arch. ven., 36 (1888), pp. 57-70; 287-97. On the Latin Empire of Constantinople and the other Latin states formed by the Fourth Crusade: D. Du Cange, Hist. de l'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs françois, Parigi 1657 (new edition edited by J. A. Buchon, there 1826); L. de Mas Lattie, Hist. de l'île de Chypre, Parigi 1852-61; K. Hopf, Gesch. Griechenlands im Mittelalter, Lipsia 1867-68; E. Gerland, Gesch. des lateinischen Kaiserthums V. COSTANTINOPOLI, I. Amburgo 1905; W. Miller, The Latins in the levant: a hist. of Frankish Greece (1264-1366), Londra 1906.
On the Crusades of the thirteenth century: R. Röhrich, Der Kreuzzug Louis IX. gegen Damiette, Berlino 1870; id., Der Kinder-Kreuzzug, in Hist. Zeitschrift (1876); R. Röhrich, Studien z. Gesch. d. Fünften Kreuzzuges, Innsbruck 1891; R. Honig, Rapporti fra Federico II e Gregorio IX rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina, Bologna 1896; I. Greven, Frankreich u. der fünfte Kreuzzug, in Hist. Jahrbuch, 1923; V. Laurent, La Croisade et la question d'Orient sous le pontificat de Grégoire X, in Rev. hist. du sud-est européen, 22 (1943), pp. 193-37; R. Grousset, St Louis et les Alliances orientales, in Etudes historiques, 1948, fasc. 3, 3-16.
On the crusading attempts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: I. Delaville Le Rouix, La France en Orient au XIVe siècle, Parigi 1886; A. Magnocavallo, Marino Sanudo il Vecchio e il suo progetto di crociato, Bergamo 1901; E. Marengo, Genova a Tunisi (1358-1373), in Arch. stor. lig., 33 (1903); N. Jorga, Philippe de Mézières et la Croisade au XIVe siècle, Parigi 1902; id., Notices et extraits pour servir à l'hist. des Croisades au XIVe siècle, there 1902; J. Gay, Le pape Clément VI et les affaires d'Orient, in Rev. d'hist. rel., 1923.
On the Crusades in the history of medieval culture: H. V. Sybel, Sagen u. Geschichte über die Kreuzzüge (Kleine Schriften, 3), Monaco 1881; H. Pruzz, Kulturgeschichte d. Kreuzzüge, Lipsia 1883; O. Henne am Rhyn, D. Kreuzzüge u. d. Kultur ihrer Zeit, Lipsia 1883-85; id., Kulturgesch. d. Kreuzzüge, there 1894; J. Ebersolt, Orient et Occident. Recherches sur les influences byzantines et orientales en France pendant les Croisades, 2 vols., Parigi-Bruxelles 1928-29. Pier Fausto Palumbo