### AND SCIENTIFIC.
SUMMARY: 1. A. Platonica. — 2. A. Pontianiana. — 3. A.
Romana. — 4. A. scientifiche. — 5. A. Nazionale dei Lincei. —
6. R. A. d’Italia.
1. A. PLATONICA. — The revival of humanistic studies in the 15th century also brought about the rebirth of the a. in the Greek sense. Thus there arose in Florence the so-called A. Platonica, later promoted by Cosimo the Elder, with Marsilio Ficino (1433-99) as its head. Francesco de’ Vieri, in his Compendio della dottrina di Platone (Florence 1577), recounts that the “Gran Cosmo” was repeatedly captivated by the Greek philosopher George Gemistus, called Pletho, as he discoursed “degli altissimi misteri platonici,” and conceived the idea of reviving the Platonic A. in Florence. In 1463, he commissioned Marsilio Ficino to translate all the works of Plato and also provided him with a tranquil retreat by donating him the villa of Montevecchio at Careggi. Ficino named his villa an A.: on 7 November 1474, he celebrated with nine Platonists—one for each Muse—the commemoration of Plato, an event that was repeated annually. The participants were called “Academici” or “Academica familia.” In Ficino’s mind, “pater platonicae familiae,” the ancient Athenian A. had thus been revived around him, with Plato himself restored to life. Yet in the consciousness of his contemporaries and even of his own companions, these gatherings were no more than one of the many erudite assemblies then customary in Florence. They were attended not only by Platonists but also by philosophers of other schools, men of letters, jurists, poets, statesmen, and scientists. Ficino himself lists them in a letter to Martino Preninger, chancellor of the bishop of Constance. Among them were Poliziano, Lorenzo the Magnificent, the geographer Francesco Berlinghieri, Pier Leoni da Spoleto (a physician), Naldo Naldi, Ugolino Verini, Giovanni Neri, Pier Soderini, Amerigo Corsini, and others. Thus, there were few philosophers, and of these only one left a lasting mark on the history of thought: Giovanni Pico, count of Mirandola and Concordia.
The Florentine A., which reached its zenith during the youth of Lorenzo and Giuliano de’ Medici, survived until 1522, later reviving under the name and different nature of the “Crusca.” Through its efforts, the philosophical rebirth named after Plato unfolded in Tuscany. Platonism had reached Florence as early as 1396 with the arrival of Manuel Chrysoloras, and more decisively in 1423, when Aurispa and Traversari returned from Constantinople bearing the first complete Plato and the principal Neoplatonists. Leonardo Bruni and other humanists, through partial translations, had at least provided a philological acquaintance with Plato, while George Gemistus celebrated his divine speculative virtue. Nevertheless, Cardinal Bessarion could still say, even after 1460, that Plato was practically unknown in Italy. Marsilio Ficino, translator and interpreter of the Athenian philosopher, elaborated his doctrine philosophically and integrated it into the original development of the Italian spirit. In his Theologia platonica, his major work, he strove to fuse Platonism and Christianity, though achieving only a Platonizing of Christianity—a dangerous outcome, for it ended “by anchoring Christianity in the common natural religion.”
Silvio Pasquazzi
2. A. Pontianiana. — Founded in Naples under the patronage of Alfonso of Aragon, its founder was Antonio Beccadelli, called il Panormita from his native city (Panormus, Palermo), who housed the academicians in his home on via dei Tribunali or in his villa “Plinius” at Resina, or gathered them in the Porticus Antoniana, which bore his own name. It was a center of essentially philological studies, less ostentatious and more closely tied to contemporary life than the Florentine and Roman A. The Panormita guided the discussions with his lively wit, and upon his death in 1471, Giovanni (Gioviano) Pontano succeeded him as head of the A., becoming its legislator and organizer, and the most original poet of the humanist period. Thus the A. came to be called Pontaniana. It gathered the finest minds of the Kingdom: Sannazzaro, known as Attius Syncerus; Gabriele Altilio, elegant Latin poet and author of a famous epistolary; Tristano Caracciolo and the Acquaviva, both warrior and man of letters. Alongside these and many others, in the new quarters on via del Purgatorio ad Arco, there gathered Michele Marullo, Pietro Summonte (editor of Pontano’s works), Luigi Galluccio, and Antonio de Ferraris, physician to Ferdinand I. Pontano, revered and beloved as a master, “exercised an effective influence on the literary tastes and intellectual pursuits of all.” His dialogues reflect those meetings and discussions. When he died, the A. declined; it later flourished again under Jacopo Sannazzaro and Scipione Capece, before dissolving around the mid-16th century. It rose once more during the reign of Joachim Murat, though with a changed orientation.
Silvio Pasquazzi
3. A. Romana. — It was founded by Giulio Pomponio Leto, an illegitimate descendant of the Sanseverino princes of Salerno, in his house on the banks of the Tiber. Humanists of varied temperament, bearing Latinized names, gathered there to discuss art, philology, philosophy, and archaeology. Devoted entirely to the cult of classical antiquity, they considered themselves reincarnations of the ancients; they dated their writings ab urbe condita, and every year celebrated 21 April, traditionally held to be the founding day of Rome. Each member was a “sacerdos Academiae Romanae,” and their head bore the title of “Pontifex maximus.” After Pomponio Leto, who was the driving force, Bartolomeo Sacchi da Piadena—known as il Platina—distinguished himself in the Roman A. He devoted himself to the History of Mantua, the life of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, and the Liber de vita Christi ac omnium Pontificum, which more than any other work has preserved his name. Alongside il Platina, mention must be made of Filippo Buonaccorsi da San Gimignano, who took the name Callimachus Experiens, and Marcantonio Cocci da Vicovaro, called il Sabellico. In their love for antiquity, they did not disdain Christian antiquities either. Giambattista De Rossi drew from the catacombs of Callisto and Priscilla some inscriptions attesting that the academicians had visited those places. Perhaps they thus enacted that contemporaneity of Christian and pagan that was in their spirit. Yet it seemed that the Roman humanists wished to renounce Christianity in order to revive pagan idolatry. In reality, though the tone of the A. was openly paganizing, the religious question was never truly addressed by these humanists; it was rather “an attitude that today we might call aestheticism.” Yet in 1468 they were accused of conspiring against the Pope and of seeking to remove Rome “de la subiecione de' preti,” and by order of Paul II—who was himself little favorably disposed toward Humanism—Pomponio Leto and il Platina were imprisoned. The A. was thus dissolved. It reconstituted itself later under the pontificate of Sixtus IV, in a house that Pomponio Leto had on the Quirinal, where he collected ancient works of art, inscriptions, and manuscripts; the academicians resumed their rites and annually celebrated the Polliae, but they took care to return with greater caution to their original direction, tempering that superstitious and exaggerated cult of antiquity.
### Silvio Pasquazzi
4. SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES. — To the earliest examples of 15th-century philosophical and literary academies were added, in the 16th and even more in the 17th century, scientific ones, of which the Accademia dei Segreti, founded in Naples by G. B. della Porta (1545-1615), can be considered the first significant example. The name was determined by the fact that it admitted only those who had discovered some "secret" or special discovery that would be useful to medicine or science. The Accademia dei Segreti, however, did not have a long life, nor did it render any real service in the scientific field, so it must be regarded as a mere sketch of what was to develop much further later on.
In the 17th century, the need to unite the efforts of multiple individuals to tackle problems of difficult solution with a spirit free from scholastic ties, and to regulate their research plans according to criteria dictated by a common desire for speculation, gave a greater and more valid impetus to academic development.
The first truly worthy scientific academy was the one known as the Lincei (q.v.). Chronologically, it was followed by the Accademia del Cimento (q.v.). Abroad, in 1645 a society was founded in London under the name of the Invisible College by Hooke, Hartlib, Boyle, Wren, Petty, and others, but it acquired real scientific value when, in 1662, Charles II transformed it into the Royal Society, uniting the Oxford Philosophical Society and the Invisible College. Its publication was the periodical *Philosophical Transactions*, begun in 1665.
In France, Cardinal A.-G. de Richelieu founded the Académie Française in Paris in 1635, an institution that, however, had no scientific purpose, while in 1665 J. B. Colbert founded the Académie des Sciences.
In Germany, at Erfurt, J. Lorenz Bausch founded in 1652 a *Gesellschaft naturforschender Aerzte* which in 1677 was transformed into the famous *Academia Leopoldino Carolina Naturae Curiosorum*.
To these first academies, many others followed.
The rise of scientific academies coincides with that critical moment when the new current had its first contact with religious thought; a moment of exceptional importance, often misinterpreted by those who would draw from it general observations deducing an inhibitory action of the Church with respect to scientific progress. To this Church, which had only recently experienced the consequences of excessively free interpretation (the growth of Lutheranism), it was only natural to be wary of any movement that might introduce undesirable theological reflections. Hence the initial attitude of distrust. But once the intentions were clarified, this attitude quickly changed into acceptance and promotion, to the point of making the very principles of the Church promoters and even founders of scientific academies.
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5. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF THE LINCEI. — For previous history V. Accademia delle Scienze. The present historical phase dates back to 1871 when, with Rome becoming the capital of Italy, the name of the ancient society was restored, with the new qualification of "national," through the initiative of Quintino Sella.
The statutes (14 Feb. 1875) added to the Class of physical and mathematical sciences that of moral, historical, and philological sciences. In 1883, the Government ceded for use to the Academy the Palazzo Corsini, a building by the architect Fuga (18th century), which also houses the Corsiniana Library and the Print Cabinet, donated to the Academy by Prince Tommaso Corsini. To the Corsiniana must be added the Academy's collection, perhaps the richest in Europe of scientific periodicals, and the Oriental collection of the Caetani Foundation, due to the munificence of D. Leone Caetani (1923). Reforms of the institution took place in 1883, 1920, 1925, 1934-35, until, by decree of 8 June 1939, the Lincei were absorbed by the Accademia d'Italia (q.v.). With the fall of Fascism, this was suppressed, and its assets and functions were transferred to the restored Accademia dei Lincei (Royal Decree-Law of 28 Sept. 1944, no. 359 and 28 Sept. 1944, no. 363). By decree of 16 Nov. 1945, a new category of "critics of the arts and literature" was introduced into the Class of moral sciences.
At present, the Academy is governed by its old statutes of 15 Jan. 1920, modified by decree of 1 Oct. 1925; it is composed of the two aforementioned Classes, each consisting of 72 national members, 72 corresponding members, and 72 foreign members, divided in the first Class into five categories and in the second into six. The governing council consists of a president, a vice-president, two additional secretaries, an administrator, and an assistant administrator. Recognized as an autonomous legal entity, the Academy enjoys a financial allocation in the budget of the Ministry of Public Education. Thanks to donations and bequests from institutions and private individuals, the Academy administers foundations, grants prizes, announces competitions, and promotes conferences. Among the foundations are the notable "Alessandro Volta," "Feltrinelli," and "Doncagni."
Since 1870, the Academy has published seven series of *Rendiconti* and *Memorie* of the Class of physical and mathematical sciences and the Class of moral sciences, as well as six series of *Notizie degli scavi di antichità*. Other notable publications issued by the Academy or entrusted to publishers include: *Monumenti antichi*, a collection begun in 1890; *Atti delle Assemblee costituzionali italiane*; *Classici greci e latini*; *Forma Urbis Romae*; and Leonardo’s *Codex Atlanticus*, among others.
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6. ROYAL ACADEMY OF ITALY. — Established in Rome on 7 Jan. 1926, inaugurated on 28 Oct. 1929, and suppressed on 28 Sept. 1944. Its purpose was "to promote and coordinate Italian intellectual activity," through a series of specific activities outlined in the first article of its statutes, including: providing advice to the government on the most important cultural issues, promoting explorations, conferring prizes and scholarships, and aiding distinguished scholars with subsidies and pensions. It was divided into four classes: moral and historical sciences; physical, mathematical, and natural sciences; literature; and arts. Each class consisted of 15 academicians, increased to 20 in 1939. The academicians were considered Grand Officers of the State. Among its members were Cardinal Gasparri and Monsignor Perosi. Attached to the Academy, through the munificence of institutions and private individuals, were notable institutions: the "Volta" Foundation, promoter of the "International Volta Conferences"; the "Feltrinelli," "Novara," and other minor foundations; study centers for Italian East Africa, Albania, and Italian Switzerland. Under the Academy’s patronage, important explorations were conducted in Africa and those of G. Tucci in Tibet. Its editorial activity resulted in twenty collections of scientific, literary, and artistic works. As its seat, the State had ceded to the Academy the ownership of the Villa Farnesina, famous for Raphael’s frescoes. In 1939, the Accademia d’Italia absorbed the Accademia dei Lincei; but in 1944 the process was reversed: the Accademia d’Italia was suppressed, and its assets, activities, and functions were transferred to the reconstituted National Academy of the Lincei (q.v.).
VI. A. ARTISTICHE E MUSICALI.
SUMMARY:
1666. Art Academies
2. A. of St Cecilia. - 3. A. of St Luke.1667. ART ACADEMIES
This name was given, towards the end of the 16th century, to the art schools that some artists opened in their studios to replace the old workshops (e.g., the A. degli Incamminati, run in Bologna by the Carracci). More specifically, however, the term a. referred to those associations of artists which, taking up the legacy of the ancient universities, guilds and studios, aimed to promote and study the fine arts. Recognised by popes and rulers, they were often entrusted with public functions.In Florence, the A. del Disegno was founded in 1563 from the ancient Compagnia di S. Luca. A similar one arose in Perugia in 1573. Above all, however, the Roman A. di S. Luca excelled; it originated from a pre-existing guild of painters, which, with statutes dating to 1479, aimed especially at religious purposes and mutual aid. This A. was recognised in 1577 by Gregory XIII, and Urban VIII sanctioned its functions as a magistracy overseeing the various artistic corporations; its statutes date to 1592, when Federico Zuccari was its president. Under Canova, it obtained official art instruction, which it maintained until 1874.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, almost every Italian city wanted its own a.; notable examples include Turin (A. Albertina), Bologna (A. Clementina), Lucca, Venice, Genoa, Parma, Verona, Carrara, Milan (Brera), Modena, Bergamo (Carrara), Naples, etc.
Many other academies, often modelled on the Italian ones, were founded abroad, such as the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in Paris (1648), the Accademia di Francia in Rome (1666), the Academia de S. Fernando in Madrid (1744), the Royal Academy in London (1766), and the Academia de España in Rome (1873).
The academies have made a notable contribution to the advancement of art through theoretical discussions, practical teaching, moral protection of artists, administration of bequests, publication of “memoirs,” organisation of competitions, and the preservation of archives and collections. Certain deviations known as academism (v.) cannot make us forget all these merits; and although today the tasks of historical academies are much reduced, it would not be right to consider their function entirely exhausted. Several of them continue to instruct young people through free evening schools, even though official art education has now been assumed by the Government, which provides it through artistic lyceums (istituti secondari) and nine higher institutes in Carrara, Bologna, Florence, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Turin and Venice, which are called Accademie di Belle Arti.
An attempt to restore importance to a great academic body was made in 1926 with the later-suppressed A. d'Italia (v. col. 180, n. 6), which included a class of the arts.
Particular mention should be made here of the P. A. dei Virtuosi al Pantheon, founded in Rome in 1543 as a gathering of artists working in the city, which specialises in sacred art (v. n. III,5).
2. A. OF ST CECILIA, Rome. — The origins of this institution can be traced to the decrees of the Council of Trent regarding sacred music (22nd session, 17 Sept. 1562). In 1566, the maestri di cappella of Rome gathered with singers and performers into a sodality headed by Pier Luigi da Palestrina, the great architect of that reform. In 1584, Gregory XIII canonically erected it as a confraternity under the title “Congregation of the Musicians of Rome under the invocation of St Cecilia,” which Urban VIII approved in perpetuity with the bull Pietatis et christianae charitatis of 20 Nov. 1624. Other popes, notably Clement XI with the brief Ad pastoralis dignitatis officium (1716), Pius VI with the brief Supremi dispositione consilii (1794), and Pius VIII with the brief Quoniam vero vocum concentus (1830), gradually enlarged and defined its prerogatives, extending them to the examination and appointment of maestri and performers, music schools, licensing of musical books for printing, and other matters. Although this jurisdiction has not always been equally in force throughout the centuries, the sodality has largely been responsible for the formation of the glorious Roman school of music. In 1839, an academy was united to the Congregation, whose title eventually prevailed, and it obtained from Pius IX the qualification “Pontifical.”
A complete reconstitution of the A. took place in 1875 under the Italian government, which officially took it over; in particular, its teaching courses were developed, including a Liceo musicale that later became a Conservatory, directed by the academy’s own president. The academy now promotes art, culture and musical education through various means; it founded the “Unione Nazionale Concerti” (1922) and the “Federazione Internazionale dei Concerti” (1929). Subsequent statutory reforms were enacted in 1897, 1912 and 1934. The academy currently consists of 100 effective (Italian) and 50 honorary (foreign) academicians. It possesses a rich collection of printed and manuscript materials, named since 1911 the “Biblioteca musicale governativa di S. Cecilia.” The feast of the patron saint (22 Nov.), for which the ancient Congregation founded a chapel in the church of S. Carlo ai Catinari, is still officially celebrated with a solemn Mass.
3. A. OF ST LUKE, Rome. — Its initial period is considered to be that of the Roman university or guild of the arts, which existed at the end of the 15th century, governed by statutes preserved in a codex of 1478. The A. dedicated to St Luke was created by Gregory XIII with a brief dated 15 Oct. 1577, and obtained confirmation of its privileges and a seat in the church of S. Martina al Foro Romano from a bull of Sixtus V in 1588. From its origins, alongside the A. composed of the leading artists, there arose a Compagnia or Confraternity, which admitted lesser artists, excluding only apprentices and labourers. A munificent protector of the A. in its early days was Cardinal Federico Borromeo; its animator and legislator was the painter Federico Zuccari, appointed its “principe” in 1593. Subsequent statutes were issued for the sodality in 1607, 1714, 1788, 1817, 1907 and 1934. All the most illustrious Italian artists and major foreigners belonged to it, and many other academies modelled on it arose in various places. The A. was both an expression and an instrument of the universal prestige enjoyed by Italian art during the centuries of its enduring splendour. Its most notable activities consisted in the education and protection of young artists, the conservation and defence of the ancient artistic patrimony, the organisation of competitions (the most solemn of which was founded by Clement XI), and, until the end of the papal government, the provision of art instruction.
The Academy is composed of three classes: painting, sculpture, architecture, each of which has 12 effective merit academicians and 24 corresponding members. It also includes honorary academicians numbering no more than 90, chosen from among literary figures, art writers, scientists, and patrons of the fine arts. Numerous are also the competitions of its 40 foundations. The Academy's patrimony is further enriched by the Sarti Art Library, the painting gallery, collections of drawings, and documents. The Academy's seat remained until 1932 in the building annexed to