ACCADEMIE

ACADEMIES. – Schools and free associations of scholars with literary or scientific aims, regarded as centers radiating learning.

OUTLINE:

I. The Greek Academy

II. General survey of modern Academies in Italy

III. Pontifical Academies

IV. Ecclesiastical Academies in Russia

V. Literary, philosophical and scientific Academies

VI. Artistic and musical Academies.

I. THE GREEK ACADEMY

Academy is the name by which the school of Plato has been fixed in history. After the failure of his first political ventures in Syracuse, Plato returned to Athens in 387 and founded his school on a property he had purchased six stadia northwest of the city. The name is probably derived from ‘Ακαδημος, the eponymous hero of that district. The site was splendid: olive trees flourished there, which legend said had sprung from the sacred olive that Minerva had caused to grow where the Erechtheum was later built. Plato had altars erected in honor of Zeus, the Muses, and Eros; the building was surrounded by a large park, approached by splendid avenues, and the gymnasium was magnificent. It is likely that the description of the place at the beginning of the Phaedrus, as the setting for the dialogue, refers to the natural beauties of the Academy. Plato linked possession of the property to the school, which remained there, through changing fortunes, for about ten centuries, until its closure was ordered in A.D. 529 by Justinian.

The school was governed by the scholarch; he was not, however, the only teacher, for lectures were also given by assistants chosen as the most suitable for teaching within the school. It may be said that all knowledge was the object of study and research, from philosophy to the sciences, especially those with a mathematical character and orientation. Plato himself, who had drawn so much from Pythagoreanism—perhaps even the idea of a school resembling the Pythagorean conventicle—set the example, particularly in the final phase of his thought, as can be inferred from his theory of idea-numbers.

Given the centuries of life, it is easily understood how the direction marked out by Plato underwent fluctuations, deviations, and denials. The multi-century life of the Academy is usually divided into five periods, though Cicero and Varro reduced them to two: the Old and the New Academy. The first period, after the direction of the founder, runs from Speusippus, the scholarch (from 347 B.C., the year of Plato’s death), to Arcesilaus (d. 241 B.C.). During this period, the direction passed to Xenocrates (339–314), Polemo (314–270), Crates, and Crantor. The direction of the Academy in this first period, which Cicero also considered the so-called Old Academy, remained fairly consistent with the founder’s teachings, first emphasizing the mathematical Pythagorean aspect, then the moral problem, especially with Crates and Crantor. Yet the genius of Plato soon faded in these first successors, who devoted themselves rather to organizing and systematizing knowledge, from which emerged a clear distinction between dialectic, physics, and aesthetics, which in Plato were in a sense blended.

The second Academy begins with the scholarchate of Arcesilaus and marks the beginning of the greatest deviation the school ever suffered, namely, the turn toward skepticism. With this scholarch, the conflict against Stoic epistemological dogmatism began. Indeed, it was the problem of knowledge that Arcesilaus directed his research toward, arriving at a position of doubt, which, for practical purposes, could be mitigated by what was called common sense. The immediate successors of Arcesilaus—Lacyde, Telecles, Evander, and Hegesinus—remained faithful to the new direction, which developed fully into explicit skepticism, tempered only by a theoretical-practical probabilism, under Carneades (214–129 B.C.), with whom the so-called third Academy began, aimed at decisively combating Stoic dogmatism as it had been asserted especially in Chrysippus.

The skeptical direction, more or less disguised, continued in the history of the Academy under the scholarchates of Carneades Junior, Crates of Tarsus, and Clitomachus of Carthage. The so-called fourth Academy began with the immediate successor of Clitomachus (d. 110 B.C.), Philo of Larissa (d. 80 B.C.). He abandoned the position of explicit skepticism without, however, arriving at a precise dogmatic conception: it was merely a kind of compromise between Carneades’ doubt and Stoic epistemology, reducing everything to the affirmation of a generic possibility of knowledge. The fifth Academy was founded by Philo’s successor, Antiochus of Ascalon, a friend of Cicero (d. 68 B.C.). This phase amounted to nothing more than eclecticism (Cicero’s philosophical position). Antiochus’ intention was, in fact, to demonstrate the substantial agreement between Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic doctrines.

Little is known of the later life of the Academy as it unfolded in the first centuries after Christ; a full revival, certainly worthy of the founder’s intentions, occurred in the fifth century with Plutarch, Syrianus, and especially Proclus (410–85). This revival reflects the great impetus given to reflective thought by Plotinus’ Neoplatonism. The impulse, also driven by the intention of resolving religion into philosophy, brought great luster to the Academy, which thus closed with a state of research and solutions far superior to the philosophical struggles of the school after Plato, amid the denials of skepticism and the compromises of eclecticism.

II. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN ACADEMIES IN ITALY

OUTLINE:

1. The various institutions

2. Academies and the Church

3. Roman and Pontifical Academies.

3. THE VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS

Humanism in the 15th century made use of free associations of scholars as centers for spreading classical studies, thus giving rise to modern Academies. The revival of culture, the passion for ancient authors, and the need to meet and share the results of studies and research generated gatherings—what we would today call “circles”—which gradually took on the character of cultural associations with organization and hierarchy.

Among the first manifestations of this kind may be counted that of Cardinal Bessarion (c. 1440), if it can be called an Academy. Bessarion’s house became the meeting place of the most illustrious humanists of Greece and Italy. A typical model for others was the Academy founded (c. 1460) in Rome by the humanist Pomponio Leto, who, gathering around him some friends fervent in their devotion to antiquity, gave life to the celebrated society known as the Roman Academy (v. n. V, 3) or Pomponian Academy, in which debates were held on poetry, art, philosophy, and philology.

In various cities of Italy, other Academies arose at that time with more or less brief lives, due to the fame and importance of the humanists who resided there and to the favor of princes. Worthy of mention are the Pontanian Academy (v. n. V, 2) of Gioviano Pontano, formerly an Alfonsine or of the Panormita, in Naples, which had the same orientation as the Pomponian; the Platonic Academy (v. n. V, 1) of Ficino in Florence, which, with a new orientation, aimed to absorb the spirit of Plato into Christianity; and the Aldine Academy of Venice, which oriented itself toward archaeology and philology.

The humanists, even in the Academies, often cloaked Christian customs and names in classical garb; but in general they were not animated by anti-Christian spirit.

Toward the middle of the 16th century, the academies were undergoing radical transformations: with the decline of Humanism, the Italian language gradually took the place of Latin, and the cultural aims of these associations broadened, though with a predominant literary focus. The Accademia della Crusca (1582) (q.v.) deserves credit for zealously promoting the cult of the national language.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the phenomenon of the spread of academies intensified, even in small centers of the peninsula. They aligned with the literary trends of the time, becoming verbose and declamatory in the 17th century and subsequently pastoral in the 18th, with the Arcadia (q.v.) and its numerous “colonies.” Nevertheless, one cannot deny that, in its finest manifestations, the institution served as a vehicle of culture. Indeed, particularly in Rome, such associations were regarded as centers of study—not only literary, but also historical, scientific, juridical, theological, and artistic. Indeed, precisely in the 17th century, almost as compensation for the decline of literature, there was a golden period of scientific research, which gave new direction and purpose to academic organizations such as the Lincei (q.V. n. III, 3; n. V, 5) of Rome and the Cimento (q.v.) of Florence.

Meanwhile, the ranks of academies were multiplying. Maylender, in his five volumes, lists no fewer than 2,750 such associations, providing more or less extensive information about them; most of these existed in the 17th and 18th centuries. For many, only the name and emblem are known. The fortune and progress of most of these associations were tied to the life and personal activity of their founders; thus, for many, we know how they were born but not when or how they died.

Nor could it have been otherwise for those academies founded by learned merrymakers, for whom the organization into a society was a reason for convivial gatherings, albeit seasoned with poetry recitals and literary discussions. Their very names bear witness to this: Acesi (in many cities), Acerbi (Rome, c. 1619), Aninasi (Rome, 1576, and various cities), Eccentrici (Perugia, c. 1650), Intrepidi (Rome, c. 1560, and various cities), Fulmini-nati (Turin, c. 1650), Imominati (various cities), Illuminati (Rome, c. 1598), Umoristi (Rome, c. 1500), Cioccolataria (Rome, c. 1770, whose members included V. MARONITI, N. Spedalieri, and Cardinal Pacca).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Revolution swept away Italy’s luxuriant academic vegetation. Only the most solid associations survived, merging with related institutions and orienting themselves especially toward history, philosophy, archaeology, and experimental sciences. Interest in academies in modern times has steadily waned, both due to the disrepute into which they had fallen and to the emergence of new and more dynamic forms of intellectual collaboration. The process of Italian unification then suppressed many small “cenacles” in the individual states, while strengthening the most illustrious academic traditions, giving them a more serious direction and a far more authoritative voice in national culture. We may recall the Reale Società di Napoli, the Istituti Lombardo, Veneto, and di Bologna.

As for their functioning, academies have a hierarchical structure, whose main features commonly include: a head (called Principe, Custode, Arciconsolo, Presidente, etc.), a governing council, and members: honorary or effective academicians, who upon joining the society usually assumed a name coined, for the most part, from classical sources. There are periodic meetings and their own social festivities. In past times, they were not without celestial patrons, and sometimes had protectors, such as princes or cardinals. Each academy distinguishes itself with an emblem and a motto.

An original example of academic codification is the *Lin-corago* (constitutions of the Lincei), written by the founder F. Cesi. It resembles the statutes of religious orders: the academicians must “recte pieque simul vivere” and “rerum cognitionem et sapientiam adquirere” (Maylender, III, pp. 456-59).

2. THE ACADEMIES AND THE CHURCH

The most important and serious academies made a real contribution to sacred studies, literature, science, and the arts. The Church therefore took particular care and interest in them. Many popes intervened with direct and solemn acts (constitutions, briefs) not only to regulate their life but to establish new ones. Paul III, Pius IV, and Paul V wished to be “virtuosi d’onore” of the Accademia dei Virtuosi del Pantheon (q.V. n. III, 5). The interest of the Supreme Pontiffs in the Arcadia (q.v.) is well known; following the example of Alexander VIII, many popes belonged to it with the title of “Pastore Massimo.” Some academies owe their foundation to the initiative of prelates, secular and regular clergy; others, due to their specific purpose, were reserved for ecclesiastics, such as those dedicated to theology, law, and Church history: these brought a noteworthy increment to the sacred sciences.

3. ROMAN AND PONTIFICAL ACADEMIES

Let us mention the most celebrated ones.

The Accademia delle Notti Vaticane was founded by St. Charles Borromeo (c. 1560) in imitation of the *Noctes Atticae* of Aulus Gellius. Borromeo, absorbed during the day by Church affairs, gathered ecclesiastics and laity at night in the houses of Santa Marta in the Vatican, with the aim of cultivating, with moral intent, the study of letters and to oversee the publication of preaching, which was then neglected by high dignitaries of the Curia. The Academy had illustrious members, including the future Gregory XIII. Protected by the founder, even from Milan, it died out with his death.

In the edition of the Homilies of St. Charles (Augusta 1750), his sermons delivered at the *Noctes Vaticanae* are included, preceded by the *Convivium Noctium Vaticanum* of Cardinal A. Valerio, Bishop of Verona. Cardinal Federico Borromeo, following the model of this academy, founded (c. 1580) the Accademia degli Accurati of Pavia (Maylender, IV, pp. 78-81).

Pius V founded (1566) the Accademia dei Musici, which lasted until Pius IX; it then passed under Italian government (1870) under the name Accademia di Santa Cecilia (q.V. VI, 2). The Accademia di San Luca (q.V. VI, 3) received particular care from the pontiffs. Gregory XIII recognized it with a brief (13 Oct. 1577). The Accademia dei Concili had, so to speak, two editions. The first, established (1632) at the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano by P. A. Garini, for the discussion of historical, dogmatic, and canonical topics. The second, more celebrated, founded by Monsignor G. G. Ciampini (1671), met in the Collegio di Propaganda Fide to discuss questions of ecclesiastical history in relation to conciliar decisions. It was frequented by cardinals and prelates. Innocent XI cherished it; Benedict XIV ordered its renewal (Maylender, II, pp. 40-43).

A prelude to the Reale Accademia of Christina of Sweden and the Accademia dell’Arcadia may be considered the Accademia degli Infecondi, founded (1630) as a Marian society, which later had literary manifestations in honor of the Madonna. Prelates and other dignitaries were its “Principi.” Alexander VII and Clement IX fostered II. After the foundation of the Arcadia, it declined (Maylender, III, pp. 253-60).

The Accademia fisico-matematica, founded (1677) by Monsignor G. G. Ciampini, followed the direction of the Lincei. Its members included the most renowned professors of science in Rome. The most important scientific questions were discussed there. Among its members was Monsignor Albani, later Pope Clement XI (Maylender, III, pp. 11-17).

Exclusively directed toward theological studies was the Accademia dei Dogmi (1694), composed solely of ecclesiastics (24 seculars and 24 regulars). It had its seat first at the church of San Paolo alla Regola, then moved to the Sapienza. Dogmatic, moral, and biblical topics were discussed there. It had as its celestial patron St. Paul and as its protector a cardinal (Maylender, II, pp. 220-21).

BIBL.:
Maylender, M., *Storie delle accademie d’Italia*, 5 voll., Bologna 1926-30.

Analogous to this, but with greater development, was the theological Academy, founded and endowed with 10,000 scudi by Abbot R. Girolami (1695), later approved, with its seat in the Arcangelo del Rosario in Rome and with concessions of privileges, by Clement XI (1660), constitution Inscrutabili, 23 Apr. 1718, in Bullarium Rom., XXI, Turin 1871, pp. 785-88). According to the cited constitution, to enroll in the Academy it was necessary to have completed at least four years of theological studies. Two weekly disputations were held, alternately on theology and ecclesiastical history. First, a brief exposition of the question was given, followed by an hour-long discussion. The theology lecturers of the Sapienza were ex officio censors of the Academy. The academicians, on equal terms, were preferred in the conferral of dignities and benefices in Rome and elsewhere. Benedict XIII, already an academician, confirmed and increased its privileges and founded 20 scholarships for 20 poor priests to enroll in the society (constitution Inscrutabile Dei providentia, 6 May 1726, in Bullar. Rom., XXII, Turin 1871, pp. 349-52). Clement XIV, already cardinal protector, added the privilege of conferring annually, through the Master of the Sacred Palace, a doctoral degree (constitution Ex commisso Nobis, 27 Apr. 1770, in Bull. Rom., Continuatio, V, Prato 1845, pp. 170-72). (Maylender, V, pp. 299-302).

A characteristic form, reserved for a particular category of persons, was the Academy of the Unexpected (inaugurated in 1696), which aimed to fill the posts of secretaries to cardinals, ambassadors, and high dignitaries during the absence of their superiors during consistories or meetings. It had its seat in the sacristy of S. Carlo al Corso (Maylender, III, pp. 185-86).

Under the auspices of Clement XI, the Clementine Academy for painters, sculptors, and architects arose in Bologna (1709). With the constitution Militantis (18 Oct. 1711, in Bullar. Rom., XXI, pp. 440-50), it was assimilated to the secular universities of Bologna and its statutes were approved. The gonfaloniere of the city, representing the senate, was its protector; its patroness was St. Catherine of Bologna; the academicians, “true and good Roman Catholics,” along with the associates, numbered forty. Every new painter admitted had to give proof of his art by painting a picture. The Academy could acquire and receive donations and legacies. It was entrusted with the “public school of the nude.”

Also in Bologna arose the Institute of Sciences, approved by Clement XI (1711) and enriched by Count F. L. Marsili “with rare instruments for mathematics and experimental philosophy, a museum of fossils, a library,” etc. The Academy of the Restless was later aggregated to it, taking the name Academy of Sciences of the Bolognese Institute (constitution Supremi, 12 June 1715, in Bullar. Rom., XXI, pp. 681-694). In this constitution (loc. cit., p. 684) it is recalled that Clement XI “fostered the Roman Academy of the Arcadians, exalted to its first ranks the Academy of Rome of the three liberal arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture.” He appointed the Arcadian Cristoforo Battelli as his librarian and secretary of briefs and listened willingly to the poetic productions of the Arcadians. He also gave a constitution to the Academy of St. Luke, ordering from 1702 the exhibition of works on the Capitoline Hill with prizes awarded in the presence of the Pope, cardinals, and Arcadians, who recited speeches and poems.

Clement XI also founded (1701) the Pontifical Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles, now the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy (v. n. 111,6). Great interest was shown in the Academies by Benedict XIV, who renewed the Academy of Councils, founded by Ciampini, and established three new ones with a scientific orientation: of Ecclesiastical History, of Roman History and Antiquities, and of Liturgy. The members (12; for that of Roman History, 14), chosen from among scholars, were named for the first time, along with the cardinal protectors and secretaries, by the Pope. The meetings were monthly, and the list of topics to be discussed in Italian (for the Academy of Councils, with seat at Propaganda, in Latin) was printed each year (Archiv. Stor. Ital., ser. 4, 20 [1887], p. 369; reports on the first meetings of the year 1741). In 1745, the Pope, remaining invisible to the academicians except to the speaker, attended for the first time a meeting of the Academy of Ecclesiastical History, at the Quirinal, and subsequently many sessions of the other Academies, finally engaging in conversation with the speaker and those present on the topic discussed. Praise and prizes encouraged the scholarly seriousness of the presentations.

L. A. Muratori welcomed with applause the new Academies and the appointment of scholars such as Bianchini and Valesio as secretaries, for the honor that would accrue to the Holy See.

Benedict XIV also encouraged the Spanish government’s project to found an Academy for the study of the ecclesiastical history of the Iberian peninsula and made available archival sources.

We give a separate account of the three Academies:

The Academy of Ecclesiastical History, with its seat at the Oratory Fathers, where Baronius wrote his famous Annals, contributed to the revival of historical studies on the Church and the popes, with many serial publications by academicians, such as the history of Paul IV by the Theatine B. Carrara, the biography of Sixtus V by the Franciscan C. Tempesta, and the biography of Nicholas V by the Augustinian D. Giorgi.

L. A. Muratori addressed (5 Nov. 1740) to Mons. Bianchini, first secretary of this Academy, valuable advice on how to treat ecclesiastical history (Epp., ed. Campori, IX, 4074): the Academy should have the necessary freedom; the deeds of the popes should be glorified, but without flattery; healthy criticism of books, authors, and legends should be permitted. “It is better,” Muratori continues, “that we ourselves tell the truth, rather than have it told with scorn by our enemies... I see the immortal Baronius going very frankly on many occasions. By the grace of God, the holy Church has no need of lies, nor does she fear the truth.”

The Academy of Roman History and Antiquities (or Archaeology) had its seat on the Capitoline Hill and died out with the death of the founding Pope. It was restored by Napoleon I. Pius VII endowed it from the public treasury; Pius VIII and Gregory XVI also provided it with substantial aid and encouragement. In addition to its own meetings, it held an annual solemn meeting with the Academy of St. Luke on 21 Apr. (cf. Maylender, V, pp. 36-38). Today it still exists under the name Pontifical Roman Academy of Archaeology (v. n. III.4).

The Academy of Liturgy received from Benedict XIV a historical-scientific orientation.

Benedict XIV also established for poor young men another particular school, a “gymnasium publicum seu academia” of painting and sculpture, called “of the nude,” with its seat on the Capitoline Hill (constitution Inter curas, 17 Mar. 1754, in Bull. Bened. XIV, III, 11, Prato 1847, pp. 178-81). This school followed in its peregrinations the Academy of St. Luke, to which it was entrusted (G. Collini, Notizia delle a. erette in Roma per ordine della S. d. N. S. papa Benedetto XIV, Rome 1740).

The Academy of the Aborigines, founded by Canon F. Turris, was approved by Pius VI and inaugurated on 13 Oct. 1777 under the aegis of the Most Holy Mary and St. Thomas Aquinas. Because of its aim of cultivating literary, scientific, theological, and canonical studies, it may be called a mixed type. Its emblem: a reed shaken by the wind. Motto: Sto quia debilis, later changed to Agitata viresco. It enjoyed great diffusion and, like the Arcadia, also had “colonies.” Many cardinals were enrolled, including Giacinto Gerdil under the name Solone Ateniese (Maylender, I, pp. 7-23).

The Academy of the Pious Union of St. Paul was not a true academy but had an academic structure. Founded in 1790 and approved by Pius VI (1797), it aimed at the study of sacred sciences. Pius VII approved it under the name “Diamazione degli ecclesiastici studenti dell’Unione di S. Paolo” (constitution Ex quo aeternae, 30 Aug. 1822, in Bull. Rom. Continuatio, VII, 11, Prato 1852, pp. 2280-86). The priest Marquis F. Filonardi endowed it with an annual revenue of 2,000 scudi (Maylender, V, pp. 292-94).

It follows that the academies often overlapped, frequently losing the clear distinction of their purposes; often they languished after a brief period of flourishing, due to the enthusiasm of their founders. It thus became necessary for authority to intervene to eliminate associations no longer viable and to prevent new foundations. Leo XII regulated the burgeoning Roman academies, dedicating to them Title XXXVII of the constitution *Quod divina Sapientia* (28 Aug. 1824, in *Bull. Rom. Contin.*, VIII, Prato 1854, pp. 95-117), with which he established the Congregation of Studies, placing the academies under its control with the following provisions: 1) no new academies of sciences, letters, and arts may be erected without the authorization of the aforesaid Sacred Congregation; 2) existing academies, to continue to exist, must be confirmed by the same Sacred Congregation; 3) academies of the arts and of Christian archaeology shall remain subject to the Cardinal Camerlengo; in the academies, religion, good morals, and social order must be respected.

Nevertheless, the following associations that arose in the 19th century are worthy of mention:

The Academy of Catholic Religion was established (1800) with the purpose of defending the faith, particularly against the errors spread by the French Revolution. Pius VII recognized it with the brief *Perlatum ad Nos* (27 Jan. 1801, in *Bull. Rom. Contin.*, VII, 1, Prato 1850, p. 93). Pius XI united it (10 Jan. 1934) with the Roman Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas (v. n. III.2, 2).

The Liberal Academy was founded by Abbot Gaetano Cellie and a group of friends (1813). Its purpose was to cultivate historical studies of Rome and to compile a civil history from Odoacer to Clement XIV. It was respected by the restrictive laws of Leo XII due to its vitality; indeed, it received the approval of the Sacred Congregation of Studies to orient itself toward agriculture, the arts, and commerce. In 1838 it better defined its direction: to cultivate the sciences, letters, and studies concerning Rome, and to promote agriculture with particular regard to the Roman countryside. It produced a great number of publications and pamphlets. As early as 1860 it bore the title “pontifical” (Maylender, V, pp. 310-317).

The Latin Academy was established (1814) in Rome by a group of literati, among whom were various prelates, with the purpose of cultivating and spreading the study of Latin. Gregory XVI and many cardinals were members.

The Academy of the Quirites was founded (1821) by V. Diotallevi with the purpose of cultivating “each branch of the liberal sciences, letters, and arts.” In 1865 the Quirites (Sacred Sciences Section) were engaged in compiling the *Acta RR. Pontificum*. Their plan also included the preparation of a Universal History and a Latin dictionary. It was suppressed for political reasons in 1867 (Maylender, IV, pp. 359-60).

The Academy of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary welcomed, from its beginnings (1835), men of science, letters, and the arts, who offered to Mary the homage of their learning. Pius IX decorated it with the title “pontifical” (17 Jan. 1865), wished to be a member, and presided over its solemn annual session. Benedict XV reorganized it, giving it new impetus. Academics and scholars of Mariology have held annual lecture courses there since 1943, making the Academy a center of Marian studies: *Studium Mariae*.

Among the eight pontifical academies listed in the *Annuario pontificio* as still existing is the Collegium Cultorum Martyrum.

For information and assessments regarding the influence of academies in national culture, see the volumes of the *Storia letteraria d'Italia*, edited by Fr. Vallardi; F. Flamini, *Il Cinquecento*, Milan 1902; G. Toffanin, *Il Cinquecento*, ibid. 1929; A. Belloni, *Il Seicento*, ibid. 1929; G. Natali, *Il Settecento*, ibid. 1929; V. Rossi, *Il Quattrocento*, 3rd ed., ibid. 1933.

III. PONTIFICAL ACADEMIES

Summary:
1. Pontifical Liturgical Academy
2. Pontifical Roman Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas and of Catholic Religion
3. Pontifical Academy of Sciences
4. Pontifical Roman Academy of Archaeology
5. Pontifical Academy of the Virtuous of the Pantheon
6. Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy

1. PONTIFICAL LITURGICAL ACADEMY — Founded by Benedict XIV in 1748, it lapsed after his death but was revived in 1840 at the House of the Mission at Montecitorio, receiving an annual grant from Gregory XVI (renewed 28 Sept. 1842). The original academic form of the meetings, with readings of purely historical and erudite dissertations, was then changed by introducing the discussion of practical liturgical questions, as had also been prescribed for the Roman clergy by the Council celebrated by Benedict XIII. In 1854 the Academy received its regulations. Placed under the presidency of the Cardinal Vicar pro tempore and directed by a priest of the Mission, it is composed of academicians (secular and regular priests, in an indeterminate number) and censors (forty at most), who express their opinions (censures) in the meetings on the solutions proposed by the former. An epitome concludes the proceedings. The Academy now meets twelve times a year in the Leonian College. The questions to be discussed are published at the beginning of the year, and the solutions are printed in the journal *Ephemerides liturgicae*.

2. PONTIFICAL ROMAN ACADEMY OF ST. THOMAS AQUINAS AND OF CATHOLIC RELIGION — The Academy was founded by Leo XIII on 15 Oct. 1879, with the aim of promoting the study of Thomistic philosophy in accordance with the program outlined a few months earlier in the encyclical *Aeterni Patris* (4 Aug. 1879); its constitution and activity were subsequently regulated by acts of the same Pontiff (9 May 1895), of Pius X (23 Jan. 1904), of Benedict XV (31 Dec. 1914), and of Pius XI (10 Jan. 1934), who merged with it the Academy of Catholic Religion, founded in 1801. In 1945 the academicians, who reside in Rome and elsewhere, were increased in number and divided into three sections: theological, philosophical, and juridical-economic (the latter disciplines not previously represented). Since Dec. 1942, the Academy has had its seat in the Palace of the Apostolic Chancery.

The history of the Academy is part of the restoration of Thomistic philosophy in the second half of the 19th century, and among its members are found the most representative figures of that renewal (among many: Giuseppe Pecci, Tommaso Zigliara, Francesco Satolli, Benedetto Lorenzelli, Giuseppe Prisco, Désiré Mercier, Ludovico Billot, later cardinals; and also Giovanni Maria Cornoldi, Matteo Liberatore, Tommaso Gaudenzi, Nunzio Signoriello, Salvatore Talamo, Guido Mattiussi, Alberto Lepidi, Edoardo Hugon, Tommaso Pègues, etc.). At one time it had the faculty of erecting chairs of Thomistic philosophy in the various universities and colleges of Rome and of conferring academic degrees. It aggregates to itself some other Thomistic academies and holds prize competitions. Among the most important recent manifestations of its activity are the Thomistic Study Weeks (19-25 Nov. 1923) and Augustinian-Thomistic (23-30 Apr. 1930), the first and second International Thomistic Congresses (held respectively from 15 to 20 Apr. 1925 and from 23 to 28 Nov. 1936), and a Study Week on Existentialism (8-13 Apr. 1947).

It published from 1880 to 1889 the semi-annual periodical *L’A. romana di s. Tommaso d’Aquino*, which for a brief time merged with *La scienza italiana dell’A. tomistica bolognese*, and then took the form of an annual volume of proceedings, ceasing in 1895.

In 1934, the *Acta Pontificiae Academiae s. Thomae Aquinatis et Religionis catholicae* began publication annually. A general index of this new series is found in vol. 9 (1944). Since 1948, a quarterly periodical has been published under the title *Doctor Communis, Acta et commentationes*.