LEO XIII, POPE. — Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci, born at Carpineto (Frosinone) on 2 March 1810, died in Rome on 20 July 1903. Sixth of the seven children of Ludovico Pecci, colonel of the baronial militia of his region, and of Anna Prosperi Buzi of Corti. Of Anagnian nobility. At the age of eight he was entrusted to the Jesuit College in Viterbo, together with his elder brother Giuseppe. Moving to Rome to the Collegio Romano, he had Perrone as his teacher. Of deep piety, sober and simple in his habits, of delicate health, with a reflective and measured temperament, and a keen intellect, he excelled in his studies, especially in theology and literature, in Latin poetry, didactic and satirical. He felt the dignity of his family very deeply, and the honour of the Church most profoundly. At the Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles (1832) and later prelate, he celebrated his first Mass at Sant’Andrea al Quirinale (1838), with his brother Giuseppe, who had become a Jesuit, as assisting priest.
After a month he was sent to Benevento as papal delegate and in 1841 to Perugia in the same capacity. Considered for the archbishopric of Damietta, he was sent as nuncio to Brussels (1843). His nunciature was very laborious, especially because of a disagreement with the government over the question of education, which even provoked the intervention of the Austrian minister in Brussels. Recalled to Rome, Pecci was named bishop of Perugia, where he took possession ten days after the election of Pius IX. There he remained for thirty-two years (in 1853 he was created cardinal) while the Italian national movement advanced: in 1859 an insurrection plotted in Perugia by a group of conspirators was suppressed by a battalion of papal troops from Rome (liberal polemic spoke of the “Perugian massacres”); in 1860 Perugia was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, and Pecci, in the difficult circumstances, showed moderation in his attitude, but without concessions or weakness, indeed in some cases with great courage; suffice it to recall the tragic episode of the pious priest Santi. As soon as the royal troops had entered the city, a man tried to avenge himself on the aforementioned priest by reporting to General De Sonnaz that he had seen him fire from a window at the Piedmontese. The general, with summary judgment, condemned Santi to be shot. The archbishop intervened with such magnanimous accents and apostolic firmness as to move the entire citizenry: but all was in vain, while only a few days before the execution the archbishop himself proved the innocence of the victim.
Although he remained a convinced supporter of the necessity of the civil government of the Holy See, he did not, as is well known, share the methods and political assessments of Cardinal Antonelli, who for twenty-seven years was Secretary of State under Pius IX. This difference of judgment (which can also be seen in the Perugian pastoral letters of 1876-77-78) may perhaps be connected with his stay in Belgium, which brought Pecci into contact with a new world: a Catholic nation under a liberal, non-concordatory regime, an open country to all modern progress, in which Catholics participated in public life. At the death of Antonelli (1876), Pecci, having been made Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, left the see of Perugia, though retaining its administration. At the death of Pius IX (1878) the Conclave—which Pecci, as Camerlengo, had prepared to be held in Rome—after two days (18-20 February) elected him pope, and he took the name of Leo XIII.
His pontificate was immediately seen as transitional, also because of his age and moderate tendencies. Apart from predictions about his age, which were belied by twenty-five years of government—the longest after St Peter and Pius IX—from his very first acts he gave the impression that he wished to affirm the thought of the Church in the face of the problems of the time, not so much to signal contrasts and pronounce condemnations, a task fulfilled by his predecessor, as to outline possibilities of convergence. Typical is the forecast of R. Bonghi, who hailed Leo as the doctor of broad doctrinal vision (the *Lumen de coelo* of the pseudo-prophecy) who would give his pontificate “its stamp.”
His first encyclical, *Inscrútabili* (21 April 1878), describes the evils of society, to which the Church offers remedies on the spiritual and civil plane. The call to the piety of the faithful is made with particular insistence on devotion to the Rosary (*Supremi Apostolatus*, 1 September 1883) and many other documents connected with devotion to St Joseph (*Quamquam pluries*, 15 August 1889) and to the Holy Family (*Novum argumentum*, 20 November 1890). The increase of devotion to the Sacred Heart was solemnly expressed at the beginning of the century with the consecration of the human race (*Annum Sacrum*, 25 May 1899). The religious apostolate of the faithful was directed above all to the Third Order of St Francis (*Auspici-cato concessum*, 17 September 1882), and this also determined a vast movement of Franciscan culture. He restored the celebrations in the Vatican Basilica, which after the 7th had been suspended, including beatifications and canonisations, which were resumed in St Peter’s in 1897. Among the saints and blesseds of his pontificate (about fifty in all) are the Seven Founders, La Salle, Zaccaria, Labre, and Rita of Cascia.
Notable was the beginning of the causes for the beatification of Thomas More and Joan of Arc. The celebration of the Holy Year 1900, which he wished to hold despite many difficulties, was an event of great importance, reviving with success the series of Jubilees interrupted in 1825, and crowning the many Italian and foreign pilgrimages that flocked to Rome for his personal Jubilees, especially the episcopal one (1888), with the grand Vatican Exhibition that gathered notable tributes from all over the world.
As regards the education of the clergy, he considered it chiefly from the intellectual point of view, adopting the teaching of Thomism in clerical schools. A constant initiative (*Aeterni Patris*, 4 August 1879; *Cognita nobis*, 15 February 1882; *Fin dal principio*, 8 December 1902) which rescued Catholic culture from the caprices of excessive eclecticism and aroused successful attempts at renewal (for example, the neo-Thomist school of Louvain, with Mercier). Thomist culture was to be accompanied by a broad literary and social formation, with the foundation of the Leonian Seminary in Rome (the Dante chair to Monsignor Poletto). The regular clergy were recalled to a unified discipline with the Leonian Union of Franciscan foundations under the Minors and the federative organisation of the Benedictines (1893) with the abbey of Sant’Anselmo in Rome (1900). There were not many approvals of new foundations, but notable ones were those of the White Fathers (Lavigerie), the Canons of the Immaculate Conception (Grea), the Priests of the Sacred Heart (Dehon), the Divine Word, and the Pallottines. He fostered the development of the Salesians and the shrine and works of the Rosary at Pompei (Bartolo Longo).
The reconstitution of the hierarchy in separated countries, the strengthening of the Eastern Churches, and the active presence of the Church in the face of schismatics were pursued with energy, seeking to place the Holy See on good terms with the civil governments of the respective countries. Among the first significant acts were the letter for the restoration of the hierarchy in Scotland (4 March 1878), the allocution on the Eastern Churches (28 February 1879), the encyclical on SS Cyril and Methodius (30 September 1880), and the address to Slav pilgrims (5 July 1881).
The most interesting philocatholic movement occurred in England, following the Oxford Movement (among the first cardinals created by Leo was Newman), and resumed (1889) with the meeting of Lord Halifax and the Lazarist Portal, and with the proposal for the recognition of Anglican Orders. A Roman commission rejected the proposal (1896), but the fervour of studies and discussions greatly benefited the cause of Catholicism.
In the Near East, improved diplomatic relations with Russia benefited not only the Catholics of Poland but also helped to arouse among the Orthodox currents of sympathy for Catholicism (typical is the work of W. Soloviev). In Egypt, Greece, Turkey, and Chaldea, L.’s efforts met with good results; not so in Bulgaria (with the apostasy of King Ferdinand, 1895) and in Armenia, where the repeated massacres of Christians (1895–96) were not repressed by the Sultan. The solemn Eucharistic Congress of Jerusalem (1893) contributed to the growth of the Eastern Churches. Special relations were maintained with the Maronites and the Copts.
L.’s missionary activity was extremely laborious: in India it was invigorated by the end of the schism of Goa (1886) and the establishment of the hierarchy; in Indochina, a severe persecution (1885) promised a revival; in China, xenophobic opposition to missions culminated in the persecution of 1900, which L. sought to counter by establishing a nunciature in Peking, though this was hindered by France; in Japan, the hierarchy was established (1891); in Korea, religious freedom was proclaimed. In Africa, Lavigerie developed new methods of evangelization among the Arabs (Sudan, Sahara, North Africa), with the restoration of the Archbishopric of Carthage (1884). In the Congo, L. obtained guarantees for the missions (Berlin Conference, 1885). In Uganda, the violent persecution (1887) foreshadowed strong advances; in Abyssinia, the flourishing apostolate of Msgr. Massaia (created cardinal), led by French and Italian Capuchins.
L. attached great importance to anti-slavery action (encyclical *In plurimis*, 5 May 1888; *Catholicae Ecclesiae*, 20 Nov. 1890), in cooperation with civil governments, promoting national associations fostered by Lavigerie (in Italy, with Filippo Tolli, 1888).
In relations with Christian nations and their governments, L.’s stance was always to foster positive relations with the Church, regarded as a bearer of civilization, in harmony with the aspirations of peoples and the times. His unceasing and vigorous action, through diplomacy, the episcopate, and organized Catholics, was closely linked to his organic and coherent teaching on the planes of religious culture, political and social doctrine. From his writings and speeches, it is possible to draw an encyclopedia of contemporary Catholic thought (the Church, the State, Catholics and political parties, the family, public liberties, the social question, democracy...). Innovative impulses were given to religious culture (letter on historical studies, 18 Aug. 1883; encyclical *Providentissimus Deus* on biblical studies, 18 Nov. 1893), which provoked numerous initiatives (among them, the Biblical School of Jerusalem, the University of Fribourg, the Biblical Commission, and the work of Ludwig Pastor). Notably, even when L. (as in the encyclical *Immortale Dei*, 1 Nov. 1885, on the constitution of states; encyclical *Libertas*, against liberalism, 20 June 1888) enunciated the most strident contrasts between Catholic doctrine and some modern doctrines, he always left open the possibility of loyal practical agreements, thanks to the distinction, widely elaborated by modern canonists, between thesis and hypothesis. The assertion that the Church has no preference for particular political regimes was joined with the declaration of social doctrine in the encyclical *Rerum novarum* (15 May 1891), the most characteristic Leonine document, whose directives, fruitful in countless developments in all countries, were taken up by his successors.
Among the countries where L.’s action was most keenly felt, despite differing environmental conditions, are the United States, Germany, France, and Italy.
The surprising growth of American Catholicism, unsupported by either a national tradition or a concordatory legislation, was followed with the greatest interest by L. (letter *Longinqua*, 1 Jan. 1895), who created cardinal the most distinguished representative of it, Abp. Gibbons. Some attitudes of Catholics—more responsive to modern customs—gave rise to lively controversies (the question of the Knights of Labor was resolved; not so that of Catholic participation in the Parliament of Religions, disapproved in a letter to the Apostolic Delegate, 8 Sept. 1895); the letter to Gibbons on Americanism (22 Jan. 1899) provided a temperate solution to such controversies. The apostle of Italian emigrants, St. Frances Xavier Cabrini, received from L. the mandate to consecrate her labors to the United States.
At L.’s accession, the *Kulturkampf* in Germany marked, after the “Roman Question,” the most deplorable religious situation in the heart of Europe: a conversation between Abp. Aloisi Masella and Bismarck (19 July 1878) opened a series of contacts that soon became negotiations. L. aimed at the repeal of the “May Laws,” and Bismarck supported religious peace on condition that the Pope would favor the support, much contested, of the powerful Catholic Centre Party, led by Windthorst. Meanwhile, Bismarck’s gesture in offering the Pope (whom he called “sire” in a famous letter) mediation in the dispute over the Caroline Islands with Spain aroused great resonance. The *Kulturkampf* virtually ended with the passage of a concordatory law (29 Apr. 1887). In the same year, shortly before, the Nuncio Galimberti had outlined to Bismarck, who did not pursue the conversation, the possibility of reconciling France and Germany to resolve the “Roman Question.” The new Emperor, William II, traveled to Rome as a guest of the King of Italy and paid a solemn visit to the Pope (12 Oct. 1888).
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**FIG. 1.** (photo Giordani)
**LEO XIII, Pope – Portrait. Study from life by F. A. László (1900) – Rome, property of Countess Pecci-Blunt.**
In Italy the “Roman Question” produced situations opposite to those in other countries: for “most grave reasons,” Catholics were forbidden to participate in public life (non expediti), placing them outside and in opposition to the regime that emerged from the Risorgimento. LEO XIII mitigated the harshness of the opposition from 1870 to 1878 and, especially until 1887, allowed conciliatory Catholics to express wishes for pacification; yet he saw no possibility of this except through the historic and juridical guarantee of civil sovereignty. At times he permitted initiatives aimed at resolving what he termed the fatal discord (as in 1887 with the famous pamphlet by Fr Tosti, prompted by Crispi), but then, above all because of the implacable Masonic hostility, he reverted to his earlier stance. On the occasion of the vile desecration of the remains of Pius IX (1881) and then of the uproar over the monument to G. Bruno (1889), talk turned to the possibility of the Pope leaving Rome, for he deemed it intolerable for the Holy See to be subject to a government that claimed to have settled the Roman Question through the Law of Guarantees and the laws against religious orders, Catholic schools, charitable works (1888) and even Catholic associations. This clash, transferred to the international arena (and sharpened by the clash between the Italian minister Crispi and Cardinal Rampolla, Secretary of State from 1887 to 1903), set the papal diplomacy against the Triple Alliance (though Bismarck remained loyal to it) and in favour of the Franco-Russian Dual Alliance. The insistence on the Roman Question, which dominated Leo’s policy, did not diminish the values that it achieved in all countries through the participation of Catholics in the most fervent national activity and through the affirmation of the social programme known as Christian Democracy.
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**Biografie:** T. Serclae, Le pape Léon XIII, 3 voll., Paris 1894-1906; A. J. Boyer d'Agen, Le jeunesse de Léon XIII, 1886; La prélature de Léon XIII, 1900; H. des Hoxx, Joachim Perci, 1900; J.-A. Guillemin, Vie et pontificat de Léon XIII, 2 voll., 1902; N. Schneider, Leo XIII, sein Leben n. Wirken, Kempten 1903; M. Spahn, Leo XIII, Mainz 1912; G. Fraikin, L'infanzia e la giovinezza di L. XIII, Grottaferrata 1914; G. Goyau, Léon XIII, in D.Ital, IX (1926), coll. 334-59, to be corrected on the basis of J. Schmidlin, Papstgesch. der neuesten Zeit, II, Munich 1934, pp. 331-58; C. Soderini, L. XIII, 3 voll., Milano 1932-1934. Also: E. Vercesi, Tre papi, L. XIII, Pio X, Benedetto XV, Milano 1929; G. Semeria, I miei quattro Papi, I, 1870; F. Hayward, Léon XIII, Paris 1937; F. Crispolti, Pio IX, L. XIII, etc., Milano 1939.
**Studi:** R. Bonghi, L. XIII e l'Italia, Milano 1878; id., L. XIII e il governo italiano, 1882; R. de Cesare, Il Concerto di L. XIII, Città di Castello 1888; G. Goyau, Le Pape, les catholiques et la question sociale, Paris 1893; P. De Meester, L. XIII e la Chiesa greca, Roma 1905; E. Lecanuet, L'Eglise de France et la Troisième République, II, Paris 1907; C. Crispolti-G. Aureli, La politica di L. XIII da Galimberti a Mariano Rampolla, Roma 1912; G. Goyau, Bismarck et l'Eglise, Paris 1913; E.-M. Janvier, Action intellectuelle et politique de Léon XIII en France, 1914; L. Thillet, Les doctrines politiques des Léon XIII, 1920; D. Ferrata, Mémoires, 3 voll., Roma 1920; C. Manfron, Sulle soglie del Vaticano, 2 voll., Bologna 1920; O. Schilling, Staats u. Sociallehre des Papstes Leo XIII, Freiburg im Br. 1925; P. Tischelder, Die Staatslehre Leo XIII, München 1929, Gladbach 1925; id., Leo XIII, in Staats Lexikon, III (1929), coll. 926-60; F. Salata, Per la storia diplomatica della questione romana, I, Milano 1929 (relating to the departure of L. XIII from Rome); E. Hocedez, Hist. de la théol. au XIXe siècle, III. Le règne de Léon XIII, Paris 1947; A. C. Jemolo, Chiesa e Stato in Italia negli ultimi cento anni, Torino 1948, pp. 372-83; F. Chabod, Kulturkampf e Tríplice Alleanza in discussione fra il Vaticano e il governo austro-ungarico nel 1883, in Riv. st. ital., Edinburgh 1950, p. 257 sqq.