Leo XIII, Pope

LEO XIII, Pope. - Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci, b. at Carpineto (Frosinone) on 2 March 1810, d. at Rome on 20 July 1903. Sixth of the seven children of Ludovico Pecci, colonel of the baronial militias of his region, and of Anna Prosperi Buzi, of Cori. Of Anagni nobility. At the age of eight he was entrusted to the Jesuit College at Viterbo, together with his brother Giuseppe, who was older than he. Having moved to Rome to the Collegio Romano, he had Perrone as his teacher. Of deep piety, sober and simple in his habits, frail in health, of a meditative and pondered temperament, of sagacious intellect: he excelled in his studies, especially theological and literary, in Latin poetry, didactic and satirical. He felt keenly the dignity of his family, and most keenly the honor of the Church. At the Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles (1832) and then a prelate, he celebrated his first Mass at S. Andrea al Quirinale (1838), having as assistant priest his brother Giuseppe, who had become a Jesuit.

After a month he was sent to Benevento as pontifical delegate and in 1841 to Perugia, with the same office. Consecrated archbishop of Damietta, he was sent as nuncio to Brussels (1843). His nunciature was very laborious, above all because of a disagreement with the government over the question of education, which even provoked the intervention of the Austrian minister at Brussels. Recalled to Rome, Pecci was named bishop of Perugia, where he took possession ten days after the election of Pius IX. Here he was to remain thirty-two years (in 1853 he was created cardinal) while the Italian national movement advanced: in 1859 an insurrection plotted at Perugia by a group of conspirators was repressed by a battalion of pontifical troops coming from Rome (liberal polemic spoke of the "massacres of Perugia"); in 1860 Perugia was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy and Pecci, in the difficult circumstances, showed temperance of attitude, but without compromises and without weaknesses, indeed in certain cases with great courage; it suffices to recall the mournful episode of the pious priest Santi. The royal troops had scarcely entered the city when a certain man sought to take revenge on the aforesaid priest by reporting to Gen. De Sonnaz that he had seen him firing from the window at the Piedmontese. The general, with summary judgment, condemned Santi to be shot. The archbishop intervened with accents so magnanimous and with such apostolic firmness as to move the entire citizenry: but all was in vain, while only a few days after the execution the innocence of the victim was proved by the archbishop himself.

While remaining a convinced supporter of the necessity of the civil government of the Holy See, he notoriously did not share the methods and political assessments of Card. Antonelli, who for twenty-seven years was secretary of state to Pius IX. This difference of judgments (which can be noted also in the Perugian pastoral letters of 1876-77-78) is connected, perhaps, with his stay in Belgium, which brought Pecci into contact with a new world: a Catholic nation under a liberal regime, not concordatory, a country open to all modern progress, in which Catholics participated in public life. On the death of Antonelli (1876), Pecci, made camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, left the episcopate of Perugia, while retaining its administration. On the death of Pius IX (1878) the Conclave - which Pecci, as camerlengo, had prepared to be held in Rome - after two days (18-20 Feb.) elected him pontiff and he took the name L. XIII.

His pontificate was immediately foreseen as one of transition, also because of his age, and of middle-of-the-road tendencies. Apart from the predictions about his age, belied by twenty-five years of government - the longest, after St. Peter and Pius IX - he gives from his very first acts the impression that he wishes to affirm the thought of the Church in the face of the problems of the time, not so much in order to point out contrasts and pronounce condemnations, a task fulfilled by his predecessor, as in order to outline possibilities of convergence. Typical is the prediction of R. Bonghi, who greeted in L. the doctor of ample doctrinal visions (the Lumen de coelo of the pseudo-prophecy) who would give the pontificate "its stamp."

The first encyclical, Inscrutabili (21 Apr. 1878), describes the ills of society, to which the Church offers remedies, on the spiritual and civil plane. The appeal to the piety of the faithful is made with particular insistence on devotion to the Rosary (encycl. Supremi Apostolatus, 1 Sept. 1883 and many other documents) linked with devotion to St. Joseph (encycl. Quamquam plurius, 15 Aug. 1889) and to the Holy Family (letter Novum argumentum, 20 Nov. 1890). The increase of devotion to the Sacred Heart is solemnly expressed at the beginning of the century, with the consecration of the human race (encycl. Annum Sacrum, 25 May 1899). The religious apostolate of the faithful is entrusted above all to the Third Order of St. Francis (encycl. Auspicato concessum, 17 Sept. 1882), and this likewise determines a vast movement of Franciscan culture. He restored the celebrations in the Vatican Basilica, which after '70 had been suspended, including beatifications and canonizations, which in 1897 were resumed at St. Peter's. Among the saints and blesseds of his pontificate (in all, about fifty) are the Seven Founders, La Salle, Zaccaria, Labre, Rita of Cascia.

Noteworthy is the opening of the causes of beatification of Thomas More and Joan of Arc. The celebration of the Holy Year 1900, which he willed against many difficulties, is an event of high importance, which successfully resumes the series of Jubilees, interrupted in 1825, and crowns the many Italian and foreign pilgrimages that flocked to Rome for his personal Jubilees, especially for the episcopal one (1888), with the grandiose Vatican Exposition that gathered conspicuous tributes from all over the world.

The education of the clergy he considers predominantly from the intellectual point of view, adopting the teaching of Thomism in clerical schools. A constant initiative (encycl. Aeterni Patris, 4 Aug. 1879; Cognita nobis, 15 Feb. 1882; Fin dal principio, 8 Dec. 1902) that withdraws Catholic culture from the whims of an excessive eclecticism and stirs up happy attempts at renewal (for example, the neo-Thomist school of Louvain, with Mercier). To Thomist culture he wishes a vast literary and social formation to be joined, with the founding of the Leonine Seminary in Rome (the Dante chair for Msgr. Poletto). The regular clergy he recalls to a unified discipline with the Leonine Union of the Franciscan foundations dependent on the Minors and the federative organization of the Benedictines (1893) with the abbey of S. Anselmo in Rome (1900). Not many were the approvals of new foundations; but noteworthy were those of the White Fathers (Lavigerie), of the Canons of the Immaculate (Grea), of the Priests of the Sacred Heart (Dehon), of the Divine Word, of the Pallottines. He favors the development of the Salesians and the sanctuary and the Works of the Rosary at Pompeii (Bartolo Longo).

The reconstitution of the hierarchy in the separated countries, the strengthening of the Eastern Church, the active presence of the Church in the face of the schismatics he pursues with energy, endeavoring to place the Holy See in good relations with the civil governments of the respective countries. Among the first significant acts: the letter for the reestablishment of the hierarchy in Scotland (4 March 1878), the allocution on the Eastern Churches (28 Feb. 1879), the encyclical on Sts. Cyril and Methodius (30 Sept. 1880), the address to the Slavic pilgrims (5 July 1881).

The most interesting pro-Catholic movement took place in England, as a result of the Oxford school (among the first cardinals created by L. is Newman), and resumed (1889) with the meeting of Lord Halifax and the Lazarist Portal, and with the proposal for the recognition of Anglican Ordinations. A Roman commission rejected the proposal (1896), but nevertheless the fervor of studies and discussions greatly benefited the cause of Catholicism.

In the Near East, the improved diplomatic relations with Russia benefited not only the Catholics of Poland but also helped to arouse among the Orthodox currents of sympathy for Catholicism (typical is the work of W. Soloview). In Egypt, Greece, Turkey, Chaldea, L.'s action produced good results; not so in Bulgaria (with the apostasy of King Ferdinand, 1895) and in Armenia, where the repeated massacres of Christians (1895-96) were not repressed by the Sultan. The solemn Eucharistic Congress of Jerusalem (1893) contributed to the growth of the Eastern Churches. Particular relations with the Maronites and the Copts.

L.'s missionary activity was very laborious: in India it was reinvigorated with the end of the Goa schism (1886) and the establishment of the hierarchy; in Indochina, a strong persecution (1885) promised a recovery; in China, the xenophobic opposition to the missions with the persecution of 1900, which L. sought to counter with the establishment of a nunciature in Beijing, hindered however by France; in Japan, the hierarchy was established (1891); in Korea, religious freedom was proclaimed. In Africa, Lavigerie developed new methods of evangelization among the Arabs (Sudan, Sahara, North Africa, with the restoration of the archbishopric of Carthage, 1884). In the Congo, L. obtained guarantees for the missions (Berlin Conference, 1885). In Uganda, the violent persecution (1887) preluded strong conquests; in Abyssinia, the flourishing apostolate of Msgr. Massaia (created cardinal) led by the French and Italian Capuchins.

L. attached high importance to anti-slavery action (encycl. In plurimis, 5 May 1888; Catholicae Ecclesiae, 20 Nov. 1890), in cooperation with civil governments, encouraging the national associations promoted by Lavigerie (in Italy, with Filippo Tolli, 1888).

In relations with Christian nations and their respective governments, L.'s attitude was always that of creating positive relations with the Church, considered as a promoter of civilization, in harmony with the aspirations of peoples and of the times. His action, incessant and close-knit, by means of diplomacy, of the episcopate, of organized Catholics, is closely connected with his teaching, organic and coherent on the planes of religious culture, of political and social doctrine. From his writings and speeches it is possible to draw an encyclopedia of contemporary Catholic thought (the Church, the State, Catholics and parties, the family, public liberties, the social question, democracy...). Innovating impulses to religious culture (letter on historical studies, 18 Aug. 1883; encycl. Providentissimus, on biblical studies, 18 Nov. 1893), which provoked very numerous initiatives (among them, the Biblical School of Jerusalem, the University of Fribourg, the Biblical Commission, the work of Ludwig Pastor). It is noteworthy that L., even when (as in the encycl. Immortale Dei, 1 Nov. 1885, on the constitution of States; encycl. Libertas, against liberalism, 20 June 1888) he set forth the most strident contrasts between Catholic doctrine and certain modern doctrines, always left open the possibility of loyal de facto agreements, by virtue of the distinction, largely elaborated by modern canonists, between the thesis and the hypothesis. The affirmation that the Church has no preferences for particular political regimes is joined with the declaration of social doctrine, with the encycl. Rerum novarum (15 May 1891), which is the most characteristic Leonine document, whose directives, fruitful of innumerable developments in all countries, were taken up by his successors.

Among the countries in which L.'s action made itself felt most intensely, even in different environmental conditions, are to be remembered the United States, Germany, France, Italy.

The surprising growth of American Catholicism, supported neither by a national tradition nor by concordat legislation, was followed with the greatest interest by L. (letter Longinqua, 1 Jan. 1895), who created as cardinal its most distinguished representative, Msgr. Gibbons. Certain attitudes of Catholics - who were more affected by the modernity of custom - aroused lively controversies (the question of the Knights of Labor was resolved; not so that of the participation of Catholics in the Parliament of Religions, disapproved by letter to the apostolic delegate, 8 Sept. 1895): the letter to Gibbons on Americanism (22 Jan. 1899) gave such controversies a temperate solution. The apostle of Italian emigrants, St. Frances Xavier Cabrini, received from L. the mandate to consecrate her labors to the United States.

At L.'s accession the Kulturkampf in Germany marked, after the "Roman question," the most deplorable religious situation, in the center of Europe: a conversation of Msgr. Aloisi Masella with Bismarck (19 July 1878) opened a series of contacts, which soon became negotiations. L. aimed at the repeal of the "May laws" and Bismarck seconded the religious peace on condition that the Pope favor the much-contested support of the powerful Catholic Center party, directed by Windthorst. Great resonance, meanwhile, was aroused by the gesture with which Bismarck offered the Pope (whom in a famous letter he calls "sire") his mediation for the dispute of the Caroline Islands with Spain. The Kulturkampf virtually came to an end with the passage of an agreed law (29 Apr. 1887). In the same year, shortly before, the nuncio Galimberti set before Bismarck, who did not follow up the conversation, the possibility of reconciling France and Germany in order to resolve the "Roman question." The new emperor, William II, went to Rome, as a guest of the King of Italy, and solemnly visited the Pope (12 Oct. 1888).

In France, the political situation, with the failure of the monarchical restoration (1873 and 1877), led to the republic, at first moderate, then driven, under the auspices of Gambetta (1878), into the most heated anticlericalism. The new nuncio, Msgr. Czacki (1879-82), sought to soften the contrasts and to move, through a slow play of soundings, toward the solution that seemed decisive: with the aim of settling the monarchical opposition, which had with it the majority of the clergy and of militant Catholics. L. reaffirmed (encycl. Sapientiae Christianae, 10 Jan. 1890) the Church's indifference before political regimes and authorized Card. Lavigerie (with the sensational toast of Algiers, 12 Nov. 1890) to proclaim the ralliement of French Catholics to the Republic. The Masonic side did not accept the ralliement and, indeed, sharpened the religious conflicts (struggle against the Congregations, Dreyfus affair, etc.) until, with the Combes ministry (1902), it reached the abolition of the Concordat (1905).

In Italy the "Roman question" created situations opposite to those in other countries: for "most grave reasons," Catholics were forbidden to take part in public life (non expedit), which placed them outside and against the regime that emerged from the Risorgimento. Leo XIII softened the harshness of the opposition of 1870-78, and allowed — especially until 1887 — the conciliatory Catholics to express wishes for pacification; but he saw no possibility of this except with the historical and juridical guarantee of a civil sovereignty. He sometimes allowed initiatives aimed at resolving what he called the fateful dissension to come to light (as in 1887 with the famous pamphlet of Fr. Tosti, solicited by Crispi), but afterward, above all because of the implacable Masonic hostility, he returned to his old positions. On the occasion of the vile assault on the body of Pius IX (1881) and then of the sectarian uproar over the monument to G. Bruno (1889), there was talk of the eventuality of the Pope's departure from Rome, because he considered intolerable the subjection of the Holy See to a government that claimed to have resolved the Roman question with the Law of Guarantees and with the laws against the religious Orders, Catholic schools, charitable works and (1898) even Catholic associations themselves. This conflict, transferred to the international field (and made more acute by the clash between the Italian minister Crispi and Card. Rampolla, Secretary of State (1887-1903), set pontifical diplomacy against the Triple Alliance (to which, however, Bismarck remained faithful) and in favor of the Franco-Russian Dual Alliance. The insistence on the Roman question, which prevailed in Leo's policy, did not diminish the values that it realized in all countries through the participation of Catholics in the most fervent national activity and through the affirmations of the social program, entitled Christian democracy.

Biographies: T. Serclas, Le pape Léon XIII, 3 vols., Paris 1894-1906; A. J. Boyer d'Agen, La jeunesse de Léon XIII, ibid. 1896; id., La préfecture de Léon XIII, ibid. 1900; H. des Houx, Joachim Pecci, ibid. 1900; J.-A. Guillermin, Vie et pontificat de Léon XIII, 2 vols., ibid. 1902; N. Schneider, Leo XIII, sein Leben u. Wirken, Kempten 1903; M. Spahn, Leo XIII, Mainz 1912; G. Fraikin, L'infanzia e la giovinezza di L. XIII, Grottaferrata 1914; G. Goyau, Léon XIII, in DThC, IX (1926), coll. 334-49, to be corrected on the basis of J. Schmidlin, Papstgesch. der neuesten Zeit, II, Munich 1934, pp. 331-389 and E. Soderini, L. XIII, 3 vols., Milan 1932-1934. Also: E. Vercesi, Tre papi, L. XIII, Pio X, Benedetto XV, Milan 1929; G. Semeria, I miei quattro Papi, I, ibid. 1930; F. Hayward, Léon XIII, Paris 1937; F. Crispolti, Pio IX, L. XIII, etc., Milan 1939.

Studies: R. Bonghi, L. XIII e l'Italia, Milan 1878; id., L. XIII e il governo italiano, ibid. 1882; R. de Cesare, Il Conclave di L. XIII, Città di Castello 1888; Grégoire (G. Goyau), Le Pape, les catholiques et la question sociale, Paris 1893; P. De Meester, L. XIII e la Chiesa greca, Rome 1905; E. Lecanuet, L'Eglise de France et la Troisième République, II, Paris 1907; C. Crispolti-G. Aureli, La politica di L. XIII da Galimberti a Mariano Rampolla, Rome 1912; G. Goyau, Bismarck et l'Eglise, Paris 1913; E.-M. Janvier, Action intellectuelle et politique de Léon XIII en France, ibid. 1914; L. Thillet, Les doctrines politiques de Léon XIII, ibid. 1920; D. Ferrata, Mémoires, 3 vols., Rome 1920; C. Manfroun, Salle soglie del Vaticano, 2 vols., Bologna 1920; O. Schilling, Staats u. Sociallehre des Papstes Leo XIII, Freiburg im Br. 1925; P. Tischleder, Die Staatslehre Leo's XIII, München-Gladbach 1925; id., Leo XIII, in Staats Lexikon, III (1929), coll. 926-60; F. Salata, Per la storia diplomatica della questione romana, I, Milan 1929 (relating to Leo XIII's departure from Rome); E. Hocedes, Hist. de la théol. au XIXe siècle, III. Le règne de Léon XIII, Paris 1947; A. C. Jemolo, Chiesa e Stato in Italia negli ultimi cento anni, Turin 1948, pp. 372-482; F. Chabod, Kulturkampf e Triplice Alleanza in discussione fra il Vaticano e il governo austro-ungarico nel 1883, in Riv. st. ital., 62 (1950), p. 257 ff.