SEMINARIO. — This is the college which, according to the ordinances of the Church, is intended for the spiritual and literary formation of those aspiring to the ecclesiastical state. Such a task arose from the earliest times, when the organization of the communities required the contribution of capable and experienced persons for the exercise of the various ministries. It fell directly upon the bishops, who, especially in the larger and more civilized cities, were concerned to create a well-prepared clerical body, also for the benefit of the smaller communities; in many places they provided for this by gathering the clerics around themselves in common life or by turning to the monks, as soon as the monastic institution, during the fourth century, began to acquire prestige and spread.
There is evidence of this with regard to Vercelli under Bishop St. Eusebius, to Verona, to Aquileia in the fourth century, then to Milan, and in the fifth century to Hippo under St. Augustine. Particular concern was renewed under the Carolingian rulers, who took care in their capitularies to ensure the regular functioning of the schools; then, with the gradual establishment of Chapters at the episcopal sees, the organization of schools proceeded in parallel under the direction of a scholasticus or magister, whose importance must have been especially notable in the periods and places where common life was introduced or restored. The lack of public educational institutions made such arrangements particularly necessary; repeated conciliar decrees on the subject bear witness to this. The monasteries, especially the larger ones, faced the same need to establish monastic schools for their monks; but everything depended upon the greater or lesser zeal of the bishops and abbots and proceeded without determined programs, according to the particular inclinations and abilities of the teachers and pupils. The progress of intellectual activity led to the establishment of specialized centers of study, which attained their greatest development in Paris for theology and philosophy and in Bologna for law. In particular, ecclesiastics came to Paris from every part of Europe for their intellectual formation; but other cities soon arose to establish “general studies,” and the great mendicant Orders opened schools in their convents for their friars and for ecclesiastics who wished to benefit from them. This certainly damaged the development of capitular and monastic schools and left unresolved the problem of the formation of those clerics who could not attend universities and would exercise their ministry among rural populations or the urban masses.
For these men there were only the lower schools, when such schools began to arise in the cities or boroughs, or occasional teachers, clerical or lay, from whom very little could be expected. The special provisions issued for the education of the clergy by the Third Lateran Ecumenical Council (1179, can. 18) and the Fourth (1215, can. 11; Hefele-Leclercq, V, pp. 1101 and 1343) soon proved insufficient, both because they were not properly applied and because of the rapid development of renewed civilization; while the university movement was unable adequately to meet the growing needs.
The poverty of scholarly clerics had been addressed at the universities through suitable scholarships or by establishing colleges where they could live in common and also have teachers; this had been done in Paris and, in particular, at Cambridge and Oxford; similarly, at Bologna, Cardinal Albornoz did so, and at Padua, Cardinal Pileo di Prata,
for the scholars of their nations toward the end of the sixteenth century. Greater renown was acquired by the College which Cardinal Domenico Capranica had founded in his own houses in Rome in 1457 (v. COLLEGI ECCLESIASTICI); Cardinal Stefano Nardini attempted to emulate him by having another college established in 1480. The Jesuits took these institutions as their model, broadening their programs, when founding their colleges, which were intended to form communities of teachers (such as the Collegio Romano), or communities of students (such as the Collegio Germanico), or both together, on the principle that education should be free for all. These experiences were taken into account in the Council of Trent in order to complete them according to the most recent needs: in session XXIII, chapter 18 De Reform. of 15 July 1563, it was decreed that in every diocese a perpetuum Seminarium should be founded, in which the bishop could alere et religiose educare et in sacris disciplinis instituere a certain number of young men destined to attend to ecclesiastical ministries. The poor were to be preferred, without excluding the wealthy; all were to live together in the same house under a rector appointed by the bishop: two special commissions were to supervise its discipline and administration. To provide financial support for the new foundations, the Council imposed contributions upon all ecclesiastical institutions, including exempt ones, and permitted the union of ecclesiastical benefices until the necessary revenues had been reached. For teachers, those who already possessed benefices with attached teaching obligations were to be employed; for the others, the bishop was to provide. At that time no thought was given to the later development of seminaries, either with regard to the number of students or to the organization of studies; in fact, the first foundations were fairly modest, both because the financial contribution encountered many difficulties and significant legacies could not immediately be obtained, and because opposition and disputes could not be removed. The Pope, who had been earnestly urged by the Council to do so, opened his Seminary in February 1565, entrusting it to the Jesuits; he was preceded in Milan by his nephew St. Carlo Borromeo (1564) and by some more modest foundations: Rieti, Larino, Camerino, and Montepulciano. The rules drawn up for Rome and Milan were the first to govern life in the seminaries, which subsequently arose everywhere the Tridentine reforms were applied. Those of Prague, Olmütz, Vienna, and Graz were entrusted to the Jesuits. In France, zealous bishops soon took an interest in the matter, but the wars of religion immediately caused considerable damage; in addition, opposition from the Sorbonne and the Parliament of Paris made itself felt. During the seventeenth century, however, the zeal of private priests provided for the formation of the clergy. Among these, the deacon François de Chansiergues should be remembered, founder of the Little Seminaries of Providence for poor students, an undertaking begun in Paris in 1667 (cf. H. Trouillet, Le vén. François de Chansiergues, fondateur des Petits Séminaires [1634-91], reprinted from the Semaine religieuse du diocèse d'Avignon, Vaison 1924).
There were thus efforts to establish seminaries by Pietro de Bérulle of the Oratory, by Adriano Bourdoise, by St. Vincent de Paul with his priests of the Mission, by St. Giovanni Eudes, by Olier with the Society of St. Sulpice, and by many others. In Italy, toward the end of the seventeenth century, the seminaries underwent broader development thanks to the efforts of Blessed Gregorio Barbarigo, who made his Seminary of Prague a model that was widely imitated. Seminaries or colleges with a special purpose also arose, such as that of Propaganda Fide in Rome and that for the Foreign Missions in Paris, as well as colleges for the Irish, the English, and the Scots, in Rome itself, in Spain, and in Flanders, modeled on the Germanic College in Rome, established by St. Ignatius as early as 1551. The importance assumed by seminaries in the life of the Church did not escape the reforming rulers of the eighteenth century, who claimed the right to establish their program of studies and regulate their disciplinary administration.
For his territories, Joseph II sought to subject the seminaries outright to the civil authority, going so far as to establish four central seminaries in Vienna, Pest, Pavia, and Louvain, with five other branches in Graz, Olomuc, Prague, Innsbruck, and Luxembourg, suppressing the others after confiscating their revenues.
revenues and appointing the rectors and teachers. The project foundered, without, however, bringing an end to the interference of the secular power wherever it encountered no resistance from the bishops. After the French Revolution, there was everywhere, and particularly in France, a revival in the development of seminaries. In the more important dioceses, alongside a major seminary for theological studies, one or more minor seminaries for elementary studies were established. Pius IX encouraged the establishment in Rome of seminaries or colleges (v.) of a national character for the advancement in the sacred sciences of students from the various countries, an example imitated by his successors. Pius X set out to give particular impetus to the Italian seminaries, proposing new scholastic and disciplinary programs, and established regional seminaries for the smaller Italian dioceses, where the seminary system could not be adequately adapted to the needs of the times. The example was widely followed by Pius XI.
At present, the general laws concerning seminaries are contained in the CIC, canons 1352–71; canon 972 obliges all those aspiring to the priesthood to remain in a seminary during the course of theological studies.
Gregory XIII (1572–85), a distinguished supporter of the national colleges in Rome, gave them their own regulations; Sixtus V (1585–1590) established a S. Congregation, later called that of Studies, charged with supervising the proper functioning of the principal university centres, and specified the requirements for those to be ordained, while Clement VIII (1592–1605) admonished them concerning the ideals of their vocation. Urban VIII (1623–44) perfected the regulations for the colleges of Rome; Innocent XI (1676–89) inculcated the practice of the Spiritual Exercises and approved the regulations for the s. directed by the religious followers of the ven. HOLZHAUSER, BARTHOLOMÄUS (v.). Innocent XIII (1721–24) clarified the bishop’s jurisdiction over a s. entrusted to religious and, with reference to the particular conditions of Spain, laid down practical norms for the life of the various institutions. Benedict XIII created, by the apostolic constitution Crediture Nobis (9 May 1725), a special Congregation of the S. to promote the faithful and universal application of the Tridentine decree. Benedict XIV (1740–58) instituted the apostolic visitation of the s. and exempted the various institutions from the jurisdiction of the parish priest. Clement XIII (1758–69) placed greater emphasis on the study of the sacred languages—Hebrew, Greek, and Latin—while Pius VI (1775–99) exhorted students to acquire profound and extensive learning. Pius VII (1800–23), in order to restore order to the nations convulsed by the French Revolution, concluded a series of concordats with constant regard for the s. Gregory XVI (1831–46) prescribed s. in mission territories for the indigenous clergy. Pius IX (1846–78) continued the series of concordats and founded in Rome the « S. Pio » by the apostolic constitution Cum Romani Pontifices (28 June 1853), emphasizing in it, as he had already done in his first encyclical, the social importance of the pious and learned formation of the clergy.
With Leo XIII the solemn modern documents begin: the encyclical Aeterni Patris (4 Aug. 1879) on the teaching of Christian philosophy, Providentissimus Deus (18 Nov. 1893) on biblical studies, and the epistle Plane quidem (20 May 1885) on literary studies. Fundamental were the epistles Depuis le jour to the French bishops (8 Sept. 1899) and Fin dal principio to the bishops of Italy (8 Dec. 1902) concerning the direction of the s., and the importance and quality of studies; also of great interest were the encyclical epistles to the episcopate of various countries (Italy, 1882; Ireland, 1882; Prussia, 1886; Hungary, 1886 and 1893; Portugal, 1886; Bavaria, 1887;
Brazil, 1892, 1894, and 1899; Poland, 1894; Peru, 1894; Scotland, 1898; Philippine Islands, 1902; Island of Cuba, 1903). Pius X, the Pope of the interior restoration of the Church, fought for the orthodoxy of faith and ecclesiastical teaching and promoted a more intense spirituality in the life of the various institutions. He restored sacred chant (motu proprio Inter pastoralis, 22 Nov. 1903) and implemented the reform of the s. of Italy (cf. encyclical letter Pieni l'anima, 28 July 1906), issuing, through the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, a Programma generale di studi (10 May 1907; Acta Sanctae Sedis, 40 [1907], pp. 336–43) and the Norme for the educational and disciplinary organization of the s. (18 Jan. 1908: ibid., 41 [1908], pp. 212–43), and, following the results of the apostolic visitations, a series of new provisions through the S. Congregation of the Council (circular letter, 16 July 1912: AAS, 4 [1912], pp. 491–98). He laid down particular practical norms for the study of Sacred Scripture (apostolic letter Quoniam in re biblica, 27 March 1906) and founded the Biblical Institute in Rome. He issued disciplinary prescriptions for clerics and young priests who went to study in Rome (epistle La ristorazione, 5 May 1904), established the new Greater Roman S. in the distinguished Patriarchii veteris loco, and founded the regional s. Benedict XV instituted the S. Congregation of Seminaries and Universities of Studies (motu proprio Seminaria clericorum, 4 Nov. 1915), and, through the Congregation, issued the Ordinamento dei s. (26 Apr. 1920), in which the spirit of s. Carlo lived again.
The first solemn act of Pius XI was the programmatic letter Oficiorum omnium (19 Aug. 1922: to Cardinal Gaetano Bisleti, prefect of the S. Congregation) on the importance of the s. and the dignity of studies: it declared the Work for Vocations indispensable, Latin the «Catholic language» connected with the cause of religion, the s. not to be reserved exclusively to aspirants to the priesthood («Haec esto seminariorum omnium, nullo excepto, sanctissima lex»), and the regional seminary to be the major seminary proper to each of the respective dioceses. This document was matched by the analogous letter Unigenius to regular superiors (19 March 1924): the ratio studiorum of the s. was also to be followed in the houses of formation of religious destined for the priesthood. He proclaimed s. Tommaso studiorum ducem (29 June 1923) and, by the apostolic constitution Deus scientiorum Dominus (v.), gave a new organization to the higher studies of the clergy. He instituted the day pro Oriente christiano; ordered the triennial report to the S. Congregation of Seminaries and the examination of those to be ordained (Istrua, of the S. Congregation of the Sacraments, 27 Dec. 1930); and issued provisions for the proper preservation of archives. As a paternal remembrance of his priestly jubilee, he gave the Church the encyclical on the priesthood (Ad catholici Sacerdotti, 20 Dec. 1935), rich in valuable norms for the formation of the clergy.
Finally, the reigning pontiff, Pius XII, following in the footsteps of his predecessors, established the Pontifical Work for Priestly Vocations (motu proprio Cum Nobis, 4 Nov. 1941: AAS, 33 [1941], p. 479) and sanctioned its corresponding statutory norms (8 Sept. 1943: AAS, 35 [1943], pp. 369–73); he marked out the paths of truth in scientific research, warning scholars against the doctrinal deviations of our time (encyclical Humani generis, 12 Aug. 1950: AAS, 42 [1950], pp. 561–78), and formulated the criteria for a sound modern ecclesiastical pedagogy in the apostolic exhortation Menti Nostrae (23 Sept. 1950; ibid., pp. 657–702), which places the seal and crown upon the Church’s entire centuries-old legislation concerning the s.
Current Organization. — 1. For the development of the s., the most important event after the Council of Trent was the promulgation of the CIC. In Book III an entire title, XXI (canons 1352–71), is devoted to them. Moreover, many other canons concern ecclesiastical life and clerics to be ordained.
a) In asserting the Church’s «proper and exclusive» right to educate its ministers (canon 1352), the CIC deals first of all with the establishment of the s. (canons 1353–1356), recalling the duty of priests, especially parish priests, to cultivate in boys of good disposition the seed of the divine vocation, and the obligation of bishops to provide the diocese with its own s., preferably divided into a minor seminary (for literary studies) and a major seminary (for philosophical and theological studies). If the small size or poverty of the diocese did not permit it to have its own s., especially a major one,
the students were to be sent to another s., chosen by the bishop, provided that the Holy See had not erected, for the relevant territory, an interdiocesan or regional s. Every s. must have its own revenues; in their absence, the bishop must provide for the relevant needs in various ways: through collections, the tax (seminaristic [v.]), or the assignment of simple benefices to the s.
b) The persons responsible for the functioning of the s. (cann. 1357–61) are: the rector (rector pro disciplina), the bursar, the professors, the spiritual director (director spiritus), and at least two ordinary confessors, to whom, for the greater freedom of the students, other extraordinary confessors must be added. A general principle is the clear distinction between the internal and external forums. The rector, called by s. Carlo omnium primus, is responsible for the entire administration of the s., but must not be the bursar, nor may he be a confessor (cann. 1358 and 891); he is generally assisted by one or more vice-rectors (v. RETTORE).
c) Every s. must have deputati, priests chosen by the bishop after hearing the Chapter, who supervise two matters: discipline and administration. Their office lasts six years, and they may be re-elected. Excluded from it are, in addition to the rector and the bursar, the vicar general, the bishop’s relatives, and the ordinary confessors. Their opinion is consultative, but the bishop is obliged to seek it in matters of greater importance (can. 1359).
d) The students must be legitimate sons and aspire to the priesthood (can. 1363), entering the s. from the beginning of their secondary studies (cann. 972 and 1370). They must be educated in piety, study, and the practice of the Christian virtues; they must observe the rules of civility and hygiene, and ecclesiastical decorum (cann. 1367–69). The incorrigible, those who do not succeed in their studies, and all who lack an inclination toward sacred matters must be dismissed (can. 1371). Those dismissed from other s. or from religious institutes may not be accepted without the requisite precautions (can. 1363 § 3) and today without the “nulla osta” of the S. Congregation of the S.
e) The studies comprise the humanistic or literary course, which generally corresponds to that of the state schools, with particular prominence given to the classical, Latin, and Greek languages; the two-year philosophical course and the four-year theological course. The principal subjects in the major s. are scholastic philosophy, dogmatic and moral theology, S. Scripture, ecclesiastical history, canon law, liturgy, and patrology. There are also numerous secondary disciplines: archaeology, asceticism and mysticism, eloquence, pastoral theology, sacred music, etc. The professors should preferably hold academic degrees. They are required to teach philosophy and theology according to the method, doctrine, and principles of s. Tommaso (cann. 1364–66).
f) By reason of its wholly distinctive juridical personality, the s., while remaining subject to the authority of the bishop, is exempt from parochial jurisdiction: the rector himself acts as parish priest (can. 1368).
It is the bishop’s responsibility to ensure the proper functioning of the s., and it is his duty to ascertain this personally (can. 1357). He therefore exercises supreme supervision over it, while juridical representation—which jurisprudence, following the principles of the Council of Trent, had already recognized as belonging to the bishop—belongs to the rector, who, in the event of absence or impediment, is replaced by the bishop.
2. The practical implementation of these regulations varies somewhat in the different countries. In Italy the two-year philosophical course is combined with the three-year lyceum course; it has nevertheless now become customary to add a fourth year to this course, devoted particularly to the study of philosophy. In the North and in Sicily there is generally a full s. (minor and major combined); in the other regions there are the diocesan s. for the gymnasium and the regional s. for the lyceum-philosophical course and theology.
3. The regional s. of Italy owe their establishment to Pio X, who, with the apostolic constitution Susceptum inde of 25 March 1914, drew up their constitutional charter (AAS, 6 [1914], pp. 213–18), with the aim of meeting the needs of the numerous small dioceses and thereby providing them with a suitably trained clergy. They depend directly upon the S. Congregation of the S. and of Universities, which appoints their personnel and provides for their finances. The bishops of the respective dioceses exercise their supreme direction through a commission of three members, chosen from among themselves every three years at the episcopal conference. One of the three commissioners, preferably the Ordinary of the place where the regional s. is located, is placed in charge of discipline; another of studies, and the third of finances. Each regional s. receives students from the dioceses situated within a conciliar region, and they are as follows: ANAGNI, Pont. S. Regionale Leoniano (S. maggiore for lower Lazio), founded by Leone XIII in 1897, entrusted to the Jesuits; ASSISI, Pont. S. Regionale Umbro « Pio XI » (S. maggiore for Umbria), established in 1912, transferred to its present location in 1924, entrusted to the secular clergy; BENEVENTO, Pont. S. Regionale Beneventano « Pio XI » (S. maggiore for Benevento), opened in 1932, entrusted to the secular clergy; BOLOGNA, Pont. S. Regionale Flaminio « Benedetto XV » (S. maggiore for Romagna), built by Benedetto XV, opened in 1919, entrusted to the secular clergy; CHIETI, Pont. S. Regionale Aprutino « Pio X » (S. maggiore for the Abruzzi), inaugurated in 1932, entrusted to the secular clergy; CUGLIERI, Pont. S. Regionale Sardo del « S. Cuore di Gesù » (S. maggiore for Sardinia), inaugurated in 1927, entrusted to the Jesuits; FANO, Pont. S. Regionale Marchigiano « Pio XI » (S. maggiore for the Marches), inaugurated in 1924, entrusted to the secular clergy; MOLFETTA, Pont. S. Regionale Apulo « Pio XI » (S. maggiore for Apulia), established by Pio X in Lecce and transferred to its present location in 1925, entrusted to the secular clergy; NAPOLI, Pont. S. Campano (for students from Campania and the other southern regions, of the S. Luigi Faculty of Theology), established in 1911 and enlarged in 1924–26, entrusted to the Jesuits; POTENZA, Pont. S. Regionale Lucano (S. Minore for Lucania), inaugurated in 1927, entrusted to the secular clergy; REGGIO CALABRIA, Pont. S. Regionale Calabro « Pio XI » (S. maggiore for Calabria), inaugurated in 1933, entrusted to the Jesuits; SALERNO, Pont. S. Regionale Salernitano-Lucano « Pio XI » (S. maggiore for Salerno and Lucania), inaugurated in 1933, entrusted to the secular clergy; VITERBO, Pont. S. Regionale « S. Maria della Quercia » (S. maggiore for Upper Lazio), inaugurated in 1933, entrusted to the secular clergy.
Pontificium, 15 (1935), pp. 287-97; 16 (1936), pp. 69-77; G. M. Sailer, Sacerdoti del Signore, 2ª ed., Milano 1944; L. Pirelli, In sortem Domini vocatis, ivi 1946; id., Multa la messa, pochi gli operai, ivi 1947; J. Géraud, Contre-indications médicales à l'orientation vers le clergé, 3ª ed., Lione 1947; R. Biot-B. Galimard, Guide médical des vocations sacerdotales et religieuses, Parigi 1947 (trad. it., Milano 1949); A. Angioni, Il direttore spirituale dei candidati al sacerdozio, Milano 1949; D. Tomassini, Itinerario al sacerdozio, ivi 1950; A. Misani, Santifica eos: norme pratiche per gli educatori del clero, 2ª ed., ivi 1951. Igino Cecchetti
S. NELLE MISSIONI. – The necessity of forming also in the missions an indigenous clergy (v.), capable of occupying all the offices of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, entails the duty of opening seminaries everywhere, which according to the CIC may be established for a single diocese or quasi-diocese, or for groups of such dioceses.
In the annual and quinquennial reports that the Ordinaries of the missions must send to Propaganda, information concerning the seminaries is never omitted. It is asked whether there is a preparatory college for the seminary, whether the seminary is divided into minor and major, and how many students are educated in each of them. It is also asked whether the conditions of the territory are such as to permit only the establishment of a minor seminary. In that case the seminarians are sent to the regional seminary for philosophical and theological studies. The existence of at least a minor seminary is often required in order to raise a territory from a prefecture to an apostolic vicariate.
In the missions, more than elsewhere, it is often necessary to send young men called to the priesthood to study in seminaries outside their own territory, where, for many reasons, it has not been possible to establish one. Thus there are seminaries in which young men from several territories are educated, and which are called interdiocesan, intervicariate, metropolitan, or provincial. These various designations almost never imply any special juridical form and merely indicate a factual condition. In these cases the seminary depends solely on the Ordinary of the place. Special norms have been issued by Propaganda for regional seminaries, established by the Holy See for a particular ecclesiastical or civil region. Ownership of the building must belong to the missions, and the regulations must be approved by Propaganda, which during the last thirty years, with the help of the Pont. Opera di S. Pietro Apostolo (v.), has built many regional seminaries. Their direction may be entrusted either to a religious institute or to the secular clergy. Precise norms exist for both cases. In the first case Propaganda reserves only the higher direction and leaves to the Institute the discipline of the seminary and the schools, as well as its ordinary administration. The Institute must submit its rules and programme of studies to the Sacred Congregation. The appointment of the rector belongs to Propaganda, following the presentation of a candidate by the Superior General, who will appoint the other Superiors and professors and then send their names to Rome. Each year the Ordinaries, gathered in assembly, will discuss the various problems concerning the discipline, studies, and financial administration of the seminary, and will examine the rector’s report on these matters. A report according to a prescribed form will be sent annually to Rome (Sylloge P. F., n. 183, pp. 456–59). The norms for regional seminaries entrusted to the secular clergy were modelled on these prescriptions (cf. A. Cracco, De seminarorum Sinensium institutione, Sciangai 1946, pp. 221–22).
The increasing development of the indigenous clergy is due to the flourishing of seminaries throughout all the mission territories. It is almost impossible to provide a list of the minor seminaries, which are too often housed in makeshift premises. According to Missioni cattoliche, Rome 1950, pp. 531–35, there were 4,291 students of philosophy and theology, educated in 89 major seminaries, of which 2 were in America (excluding non-mission territories), 30 in Africa, 11 in India, 8 in Indochina, 26 in China, 1 in Korea, 2 in Japan, 1 in Indonesia, 4 in Australia, 1 in New Zealand, and 3 in Oceania.
To the major seminarians must also be added the young men educated among the ranks of the religious clergy, who according to Missioni cattoliche of 1950 numbered 522. – Vedi tav. XVIII.