ABATE (O ABBATE)

ABBOT (or Abate). — A word of Aramaic origin, *Abba*, meaning Father. It is found several times in the New Testament (Mk 14:36; Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6); each time it is addressed to God and followed by the translation: Father. Our Lord uses it when speaking of the Father. In the Syriac language it is also written with a single *b* (Aba); in the monasteries of Egypt: Apa.

1. HISTORY

Among the first monks of Egypt and Syria it designated the spiritual father of small groups of monks, or also monks especially venerated for their age and holiness. This sense survived for several centuries even in the West. The title was naturally given to the superior of several groups of monks gathered in the same monastery. In Basilian convents the superior was called: *hegoumenos*. With the Benedictine Rule (chs. III, LXV) the word *a.* took on a meaning that gradually eliminated the others. The *a.* is the superior of the monastery *sui iuris*, with general and supreme authority. However, the word would still be used to designate venerable monks, just as the word Father has been preserved to name the priests of religious families.

2. WE NEED NOT DWELL ON THE VARIOUS FORMS THAT THE WORD ASSUMED IN THE MIDDLE AGES, E.G. *Abbas cardinalis*, *Abbas capellanus*, *Abbas castrensis*, etc. In some countries such as France and Belgium, all secular clerics who do not hold an ecclesiastical dignity are called *Monsieur l'Abbé*. The origin of this usage is to be traced to the abuse of conferring, over the centuries, one or more commendatory abbacies upon simple tonsured men, or even laymen.

3. Pacomius (292–346) was the first organizer of cenobitic life, in which the various groups of monks have a common superior or *a.* Within a few years this form of perfect life was extended to eastern Asia and to western countries. In the Benedictine monasteries, where stability and a nearly familial life prevail, the authority of the *a.* directs the entire spiritual and material life of the monastic family. At first he could be a layman, although he exercised powers that later were reserved to priests, e.g., he gave certain blessings, pronounced a certain form of excommunication, etc. But from the 5th century in the East, and from the 7th in the West, almost all were chosen from among priests. In Western canon law, the title of *a.* became a major ecclesiastical dignity, immediately following the episcopate.

The *a.* were elected by the group of monks, but in some regions the people dependent upon the abbey also had a share in the nomination of the *a.* From the 7th and 8th centuries onward, princes intervened improperly in abbatial elections, though not always to the detriment of the religious life of the monastery, at least under Charlemagne. Feudalism, before and after the abuses of commendation (v.), also had a bad influence on monasteries, to the point that the abbatial office in some monasteries became a benefice.

The diocesan bishop preserved for centuries a certain power of confirmation in abbatial elections, especially since it was his right to bless or consecrate the *a.* This power, of which some bishops abused in order to arrogate to themselves an authority in the monastery that was not always disinterested, was greatly diminished as the privilege of exemption (v.) spread. This was favored by the discipline proper to Irish monasteries, which St. Columbanus transferred to the continent (585–90). In those monasteries there were one or two bishops who, like the other monks, were totally subject to the authority of the *a.*, who therefore did not even have to resort to a diocesan bishop for the ordination of his monks. Moreover, in Ireland the *a.* exercised his authority over a more or less extensive territory, as the *a. nullius* would later do.

In the early centuries, abbots of different monasteries united by common origin or other spiritual bonds would gather to discuss means suitable for maintaining or renewing religious discipline. When monastic congregations were constituted, these assemblies became more regular. The Council of Trent imposed them upon monasteries not belonging to a monastic congregation (Sess. XXV, *De Regularibus et Monialibus*, ch. 8). Leo XIII showed himself very favorable to the institution of monastic congregations, indeed he contributed greatly to the establishment of the federation of all black Benedictine monks with a primate abbot in Rome.

In the Middle Ages the abbots had great influence on religious life, e.g., in the election of bishops, in supporting the reform efforts of several popes, in spreading Christian life among those dependent upon the monastery, etc. By reason of their dignity, they took part in synods and councils, both particular and general. Before the secularization of states, some abbots were ex officio members of governing bodies. For example, the abbot of St. Denis was a member of the parliament of Paris, and a good number of abbots were members of the English parliament.

2. BLESSING OF THE ABBOT

For the blessing of abbots the Church has established a special rite, already known in the 6th century but more fully developed in the 8th. Competent to confer this blessing is always the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is located, but who must in any case be authorized by a papal mandate.

The rite begins with the reading of the mandate; after which the one elected takes an oath of fidelity to the Church and of fulfillment of his duties toward the Order or the

After an examination conducted by the bishop, the Mass begins, which is celebrated by the bishop himself with a pontifical rite at the high altar, while the abbot-elect celebrates at an adjacent altar. After the Gradual, the abbot-elect is led by the two assistants before the high altar, to the left of the faldstool, where the bishop is kneeling, and there he remains prostrate. The seven penitential psalms and the litany of the saints are recited, during which the abbot-elect receives the bishop’s blessing. The abbot-elect then kneels before the bishop, who, with a prayer in the tone of a Preface, invokes the grace of the Lord upon the blessed one so that, with wisdom and example, he may lead his subjects to heavenly reward. The officiant then says three more prayers, after which he presents to the abbot-elect the book of monastic rules, the crozier, and the blessed ring.

Once the Mass resumes and the Offertory is read, the new abbot leaves his altar and, with the assisting abbots, presents himself again at the high altar, where he offers the bishop two lighted candles, two loaves of bread, and two small barrels of wine. From this point onward, the new abbot no longer returns to his own altar but continues the Mass kneeling before the high altar, reading along with the celebrating bishop; he does not pronounce the words of consecration and receives communion from the celebrant under the species of bread. At the end of the Mass, after the pontifical blessing, the bishop imposes the mitre and gloves upon him and conducts him to his stall in the choir, where, as the *Te Deum* is sung, the monks pay homage to their new father and superior. When the *Te Deum* concludes, the bishop recites the prayer *super Abbatem*; then the newly blessed abbot imparts his first pontifical blessing and pays homage to the bishop with the acclamation *Ad multos annos*. Francesco Monay

3. Current Canon Law

An abbot may be either a religious or a secular. Religious abbots are divided into the following grades and categories: 1) a primate abbot, who presides over all the religious congregations of the same order united in a confederation; 2) a general abbot of a monastic congregation; 3) an abbot *de regimine* of a monastery *sui iuris*, who is also called an abbot *de regimine*. All of these are included under the name of major superiors and ordinaries (cc. 198, § 1; 488, n. 8°). However, the primate abbot and the superior of a monastic congregation, as established by canon 501 § 3 of the CIC, do not possess the full power and jurisdiction that common law attributes to major superiors, but only such power and jurisdiction as is indicated by the constitutions of the order and by the special norms established by the Holy See, except insofar as canons 655 and 1594 § 4 provide otherwise.

The primate abbot and the superior of a monastic congregation have the right to intervene with a deliberative vote in an ecumenical council; and if they are prevented from attending, they must justify their absence and send a proxy (cc. 223 § 1 n. 4°, 234 § 1). The abbot *sui iuris* governs his own monastery with full authority in both the internal and external forum. In some cases he is also an abbot *nullius*, and in that case, as we shall see further below, he has the same rights and duties as a residential bishop.

The appointment of a primate abbot and of a general abbot of a monastic congregation is regulated by the constitutions of the respective order and by special provisions of the Holy See. The abbot *de regimine* is elected by the chapter of the monastery by secret ballot. He must have completed his thirtieth year, be born of a legitimate marriage, and have been professed for at least ten years in the same religious institute to which he belongs at the time of election. Confirmation of the election belongs to the immediate superior or to the Holy See, according to the circumstances. The abbot *de regimine*, ordinarily within three months of his election, must receive the solemn blessing, according to his own constitutions (Roman Pontifical, *De benedictione Abbatis*). After receiving the blessing, even if he does not possess episcopal character, he may confer on his subjects the first tonsure and minor orders, use episcopal insignia in his own territory (including the throne and baldachin), wear the pectoral cross, a ring with a gem, and the zucchetto (though not violet in color). By common law, the blessing must be conferred by the bishop of the diocese in which the monastery is located (can. 625). Some orders, for example the Benedictines, enjoy the privilege that all their abbots may, in certain cases, receive the blessing by apostolic authority from any Catholic bishop (Benedict XV, Apostolic Letter *Pro benedictione Abbatum*, 19 June 1921; AAS, 13 [1921] pp. 416 ff.).

The abbot *de regimine* has no right to attend an ecumenical council, a plenary council, or a provincial council; he must, however, attend the diocesan synod with a merely consultative vote; and if he is prevented from attending, he must notify the bishop of the lawful reason for his absence, but he may not be represented by a proxy (cc. 358 § 1 n. 8°, 359 § 1).

Since abbots are major superiors, they must be appointed for a fixed term, unless the constitutions provide otherwise (can. 505). Cessation from office occurs in the customary ways and cases determined by the sacred canons or by direct intervention of the supreme authority of the Apostolic See.

Abbot and Abbacy *Nullius*. — An abbot *nullius* is a prelature that exercises ordinary jurisdiction over the clergy and people of a particular territory of its own, separated from any diocese, and is therefore called a *territorium nullius*, that is, belonging to no diocese. Depending on whether the church bears the dignity of an abbacy or merely of a prelature, the person placed in charge of the aforesaid territory is called an abbot *nullius* or a prelate *nullius*. He is a true and proper local ordinary, to whom all the provisions of the CIC concerning local ordinaries are therefore to be applied.

For an abbacy *nullius* properly so called, three conditions are required: 1) a territory of its own, entirely severed and separated from any diocese; 2) clergy and people subject to the prelature; 3) full jurisdiction in both the internal and external forum over the entire territory. If the abbacy does not comprise at least three parishes *iure singulari*, the norms of the code concerning the abbacy *nullius* are not applicable to it (can. 319 § 1). The abbacy may be religious or secular. If it is religious, the abbot is always a religious; if it is secular, ordinarily he is a secular priest. Under the name of “diocese” in the code and in various pontifical documents, the abbacy *nullius* is also included; likewise, under the name of “bishop,” the abbot is also understood to be included, *nisi ex natura rei vel sermonis contextu aliud constet* (can. 215 § 2). The erection, circumscription, division, union, or suppression of an abbacy *nullius* belongs exclusively to the Supreme Pontiff. The appointment of the abbot likewise belongs solely to the Pope, except for the right of election or presentation, if it should happen to belong to someone by lawful pontifical concession. Even in this case, however, canonical confirmation or institution belongs exclusively to the Roman Pontiff.

The candidate must possess the bishop (v.). If the elector, in accordance with apostolic prescription or the constitutions of his own religious institute (can. 322 § 2), is bound to receive the blessing described in the Roman Pontifical (*tit. De benedictione abbatis*), he is obliged to receive it within three months after receiving the apostolic letters, unless he is lawfully impeded; and if he does not do so, he is ipso facto suspended from jurisdiction (cc. 322 § 2, 2402). The abbot must take canonical possession of his abbacy in accordance with the sacred canons; and prior to such possession he may not, either directly or indirectly, for any reason or under any pretext, interfere in its governance. He may freely designate a vicar general.

The abbot has the same ordinary powers and obligations that pertain to a residential bishop in his own diocese. He therefore possesses legislative, judicial, coercive, and administrative authority, both for the internal forum and for the external forum. Although he does not have episcopal character, once he has received the abbatial blessing (if he is bound to receive it), he may impart blessings reserved to the bishop, consecrate chalices, patens, portable and fixed altars, and churches with the oils blessed by the bishop; grant a 100-day indulgence and the papal blessing with plenary indulgence twice a year; designate and declare an altar privileged even when it is titular and perpetual—all this only within his own territory and during his tenure. Likewise, with the same territorial and tenure restrictions (and under pain of nullity), he may confer the sacrament of Confirmation, tonsure, and minor orders; grant his own subjects letters of dismissal for the reception of sacred orders; and, if he has episcopal character, confer them himself. Within his own territory, he has the right to wear pontifical insignia, use the throne and baldachin, and celebrate divine offices with pontifical rite; outside his territory, he may carry the pectoral cross, the ring with gem, and the violet zucchetto. Like the residential bishop, he is bound by the law of residence, the application of the Mass *pro populo* on precept and suppressed feasts, the canonical visitation of the abbey, the *visitatio ad limina*, etc., according to the norms established by common law.

The abbot *nullius* has the right to intervene with a deliberative vote at an ecumenical council, a plenary council, a provincial council, and episcopal conferences that must be held at least every five years (cf. cann. 223 §1 n. 3°, 282, 286, 292). The Code does not expressly state whether he may convoke a diocesan synod, but considering cann. 215 §3 and 323, it must be regarded as beyond doubt that such a faculty pertains to the abbot *nullius*. During a vacancy, if the abbey is religious, the chapter succeeds, and within eight days must elect a vicar capitular, who will govern the abbey until the appointment of the new abbot. If the abbey is otherwise impeded, the provisions of can. 429 should be applied.

V. list of *Abbazie nullius* s.V. *ABBAZIA*.

For Commendatory Abbot — V. *COMMENDA*.