ABBOT (OR ABATE). - A word of Aramaic origin, Abba, meaning Father. It appears several times in the New Testament (Mark 14:36; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6); each time it is addressed to God and followed by the translation: Father. Our Lord uses it when He speaks of the Father. In the Syriac language it is also written with a single b (Aba); in the monasteries of Egypt: Apa.
1. HISTORY
Among the first monks of Egypt and Syria it denoted the spiritual father of small groups of monks, or also monks especially venerated for their age and holiness. This sense survived for several centuries in the West as well. The title was naturally given to the superior of several groups of monks gathered in the same monastery. In Basilian convents the superior was called: hegoumenos. With the Benedictine Rule (chaps. III, LXV) the word a. takes on a sense that little by little would eliminate the others. The a. is the superior of the monastery sui iuris, with general authority and supreme. However, the word would still be used to designate venerable monks, just as the word Father has been preserved to designate the priests of religious families.
We need not dwell on the various forms the word took in the Middle Ages, e.g. Abbas cardinalis, Abbas capellanus, Abbas castrensis, etc. In some countries such as France and Belgium, all secular clerics who do not hold an ecclesiastical dignity are called Monsieur l'Abbé. The origin of this usage is to be sought in the abuse by which, over the centuries, one or more abbeys in commendam were conferred on simple tonsured clerics, indeed on laymen.
St. Pachomius (292-346) was the first organizer of cenobitic life, in which the various groups of monks have a common superior or abbot. Within a few years this form of perfect life was extended to eastern Asia and to the western countries. Among the Benedictines, among whom stability and an almost family life reign, the authority of the abbot directs the entire spiritual and material life of the monastic family. At first he could be a layman, although he exercised powers that were later reserved to priests, e.g. he gave certain blessings, pronounced a certain form of excommunication, etc. But from the 5th century in the East, and from the 7th in the West, almost all were chosen from among the priests. In Western ecclesiastical law, the title of abbot would become a major ecclesiastical dignity, immediately following the episcopate.
Abbots were elected by the group of monks, but in some regions the people who depended on the abbey also had a part in the appointment of the abbot. From the 7th and 8th centuries onward princes intervened improperly in abbatial elections, though not always to the detriment of the monastery's religious life, at least under Charlemagne. Feudalism, before and after the abuses of the commendam (v.), also had a harmful influence on monasteries, to such an extent that the abbatial office in certain monasteries became a benefice.
The diocesan bishop retained for centuries a certain power of confirmation in abbatial elections, all the more so since the right of blessing or consecrating the abbot belonged to him. This power, of which some bishops took advantage in order to arrogate to themselves an authority over the monastery that was not always disinterested, was greatly diminished as the privilege of exemption (v.) spread. This was favored by the discipline proper to the Irish monasteries, which St. Columban transferred to the continent (585-90). In those monasteries there were one or two bishops, who like the other monks were totally subject to the authority of the abbot, who therefore did not even have to resort to a diocesan bishop for the ordinations of his monks. Moreover, in Ireland the abbot exercised his authority over a more or less extensive territory, as the nullius abbots would later do.
Already in the first centuries the abbots of different monasteries united among themselves by common origin or by other spiritual bonds gathered to discuss the means suited to maintaining or renewing religious discipline. When monastic congregations were constituted, these assemblies became more regular. The Council of Trent imposed them on monasteries that were not part of a monastic congregation (Sess. XXV, De Regularibus et Monialibus, chap. 8). Leo XIII showed himself very favorable to the institution of monastic congregations, and indeed contributed greatly to the constitution of the federation of all the black Benedictine monks with a primate abbot in Rome.
In the Middle Ages abbots had a great influence on religious life, e.g. in the elections of bishops, in the support given to the reform efforts of several popes, in the spread of Christian life among those dependent on the monastery, etc. By reason of their dignity, they took part in synods and councils both particular and general. Before the laicization of the States, some abbots were ex officio members of governing bodies. For example, the abbot of St. Denis was a member of the parliament of Paris, and a good number of abbots were members of the English parliament.
Bibliography8 works
Giuseppe Creusen
2. BLESSING OF THE ABBOT
For the blessing of abbots the Church has established a special rite, already known in the 6th century, but more fully developed in the 8th. Competent to confer this blessing is always the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is located, but he must in every case be authorized by pontifical mandate.
The rite begins with the reading of the mandate; after which the elect takes an oath of fidelity to the Church and of fulfillment of his duties toward the Order or the monastery. After an examination made by the bishop, the Mass begins, which is celebrated by the bishop himself with pontifical rite at the high altar, while the elect celebrates at an adjoining altar. After the Gradual the elect is led by the two assistant abbots before the high altar, to the left of the faldstool, where the bishop is kneeling, and there he remains prostrate. The seven penitential psalms and the litanies of the saints are said, during which the elect receives the blessing of the officiating bishop. The elect then remains kneeling before the bishop, who, with a prayer in the tone of the Preface, invokes the grace of the Lord upon the one being blessed, that he may by wisdom and by example lead his subjects to the heavenly reward. The officiant says three other prayers, then presents to the elect the book of monastic rules, the pastoral staff and the blessed ring. The Mass is resumed and, after the Offertory is read, the new abbot leaves his altar and with the assistant abbots presents himself again at the high altar, where he offers the bishop two lighted candles, two loaves of bread and two small barrels of wine. From this point on, the new abbot no longer returns to his own altar, but continues the Mass kneeling before the high altar, reading together with the celebrating bishop; he does not pronounce the words of the Consecration and receives communion from the hand of the celebrant under the species of bread. At the end of the Mass, after the pontifical blessing, the bishop imposes on him the mitre and the gloves and leads him to his stall in the choir, where, while the Te Deum is sung, the monks make an act of obedience to their new father and superior. When the Te Deum is finished, the bishop says the prayer super Abatem; then the new abbot imparts his first pontifical blessing and pays homage to the bishop with the acclamation Ad multos annos.
Francesco Monay
3. CURRENT CANON LAW
The abbot may be a religious or a secular. Religious abbots are divided into the following grades and categories: 1) primate abbot, who presides over all the religious congregations of the same order, united in a confederation; 2) general abbot of a monastic congregation; 3) abbot of a monastery sui iuris, who is also called abbot de regimine. All of these are included under the name of major superiors and of ordinaries (cann. 198, § 1; 488, no. 8). However, the primate abbot and the superior of the monastic congregation, as canon 501 § 3 of the CIC establishes, do not have all the power and jurisdiction that common law attributes to major superiors, but enjoy only that power and jurisdiction which is indicated by the constitutions of the order and by the special norms fixed by the Holy See, without prejudice to what canons 655 and 1594 § 4 prescribe.
The primate abbot and the abbot superior of the monastic congregation have the right to intervene with deliberative vote at the ecumenical council; and, should they be prevented, they must justify their absence and send a procurator (cann. 223 § 1 no. 4, 234 § 1). The abbot sui iuris governs his own monastery with full authority, in the internal and external forum. In some cases he is also abbot nullius, and then, as we shall see further on, he has the same rights and duties as a residential bishop.
The appointment of the abbot primate and of the abbot general of a monastic congregation is regulated by the constitutions of the respective Order and by special provisions of the Holy See. The abbot de regimine is elected by the chapter of the monastery by secret ballot. He must be at least 30 years of age; he must be born of a legitimate marriage, and must have been professed for at least 10 years in the same religious order to which he belongs at the time of the election. The confirmation of the election that has taken place belongs to the immediate superior or to the Holy See, according to the case. The abbot de regimine, ordinarily, according to his own constitutions, must receive within three months of the election the solemn blessing (Pontif. Rom., De benedictione Abbatia). After receiving the blessing, even if he is not invested with the episcopal character, he can confer on his own subjects the first tonsure and the minor orders, use within his own territory the episcopal insignia, not excluding the throne and the baldachin, wear the pectoral cross, the ring with a gem and the zucchetto, though not the violet one. By common law, the blessing must be given by the bishop of the diocese in which the monastery is located (can. 625). Some orders, e.g. the Benedictine, enjoy the privilege that all abbots may, in certain cases, receive the blessing autoritate apostolica from any Catholic bishop (Benedict XV, Apostolic Letter Pro benedictione Abbatum, 19 June 1921; AAS, 13 [1921] pp. 416 ff.).
The abbot de regimine has no right to take part either in an ecumenical council or in a plenary or provincial council; he must, however, take part in the diocesan synod, with a merely consultative vote; and if he is prevented, he must notify the bishop of the reason for his legitimate absence, but he cannot have himself represented by a procurator (cans. 358 § 1 n. 8°, 359 § 1).
Abbots, being major superiors, must be temporary, should the constitutions not provide otherwise (can. 505). Cessation from office occurs in the usual ways and cases, determined by the sacred canons or through the direct intervention of the supreme authority of the Apostolic See.
Abbot and abbey "nullius". — The abbot nullius is a prelate who exercises ordinary jurisdiction over the clergy and the people of a specific territory of his own, separated from any diocese, for which reason it is called a territory nullius, that is, of no diocese. Depending on whether the church is invested with the abbatial dignity or merely the prelatial one, the one placed in charge of the government of the aforesaid territory is called abbot or prelate nullius. He is a true and proper ordinary of the place, to whom, therefore, all the provisions of the CIC concerning local ordinaries must be applied.
To have an abbey nullius properly so called, three conditions are required: 1) a territory of its own, detached and totally separated from any diocese; 2) clergy and people subject to the prelate; 3) full jurisdiction of the internal and external forum over the whole territory. If the abbey does not comprise at least three parishes, it is governed by its own particular law, and consequently the norms of the code concerning the abbey nullius are not applicable to it (can. 319 § 1). The abbey can be religious or secular. If it is religious, the abbot is always a religious; if it is secular, he is ordinarily a secular priest. Under the name of diocese, in the code and in the various pontifical documents, the abbey nullius is also included; just as, under the name of bishop, the abbot is also understood to be included, nisi ex natura rei vel sermonis contextu aliud constet (can. 215 § 2). The erection of the abbey, its circumscription, division, union, and suppression belong exclusively to the Supreme Pontiff. The appointment of the abbot also belongs solely to the Pope, without prejudice to the right of election or presentation, if it should happen to belong to someone by legitimate pontifical concession. However, even in this case, the confirmation or canonical institution belongs exclusively to the Roman Pontiff.
The candidate must have the same qualities that are required for a bishop (v.). If the elect ex praescripto apostolica vel ex propriae religionis constitutionibus (can. 322 § 2) must receive the blessing referred to in the Roman Pontifical (tit. De benedictione abbatio), he is bound to receive it within three months after receiving the apostolic letters, provided he is not legitimately prevented; and, should he fail to do so, he remains ipso facto suspended from jurisdiction (cans. 322 § 2, 2402). The abbot must take possession of his own abbey, in accordance with the sacred canons; and before such possession he cannot, either directly or indirectly, for any title or reason, interfere in its government. He may freely designate the vicar general.
The abbot has the same ordinary powers and the same obligations that belong to a residential bishop in his own diocese. Therefore he possesses legislative, judicial, coercive and administrative power, both for the internal forum and for the external forum. Even if he does not have the episcopal character, he can nevertheless, after receiving the abbatial blessing, when he is obliged to receive it, impart the blessings reserved to a bishop, consecrate chalices, patens, portable and fixed altars and churches, with the oils blessed by a bishop; grant the indulgence of 100 days and the papal blessing with a plenary indulgence twice a year, designate and declare an altar privileged, even a daily and perpetual one: all this only within his own territory and munere durante. Likewise, with the same restrictive clause concerning territory and duration in office, and this under penalty of nullity, he can confer the sacrament of Confirmation, the tonsure and the minor orders; grant his own subjects dimissorial letters for the conferral of the sacred orders and, if he has the episcopal character, he can confer them himself. Within his own territory he has the right to wear the pontifical insignia and to use the throne and the baldachin, to celebrate the divine offices with the pontifical rite; outside his own territory he may wear the pectoral cross, the ring with a gem and the violet zucchetto. Like a residential bishop, he is bound to the law of residence, to the application of the mass pro populo, on feasts both of precept and suppressed, to the canonical visitation of the abbey, to the ad limina visit, etc., according to the norms established by common law.
The abbot nullius has the right to take part with a deliberative vote in the ecumenical council, in the plenary and provincial council, in the episcopal conferences that must be held at least every five years (cans. 223 § 1 n. 3°, 282, 286, 292). The code does not expressly say whether he can convoke the diocesan synod, but, considering cans. 215 § 3 and 323, it must be regarded as beyond doubt that this faculty belongs to the abbot nullius. During a vacancy, if the abbey is religious, the chapter succeeds, which must, within eight days, elect the capitular vicar, who will govern the abbey until the appointment of the new abbot. If the abbey should in any way be impeded, the provision of can. 429 would have to be applied.
v. list of Abbeys nullius under the heading ABBEY.
For the Commendatory Abbot - v. COMMENDA.
Bibliography9 works
Felice M. Cappello