Paris, Archdiocese of

PARIS, Archdiocese of. - City and archdiocese, capital of France in the department of the Seine, which coincides with the ecclesiastical territory of the archdiocese.

The archdiocese has 227 parishes, divided into four archdeaconries (Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, St-Denis, Sceaux). The number of priests enrolled in the Ordo of 1952 is 2,109. Between the minor and the major Seminary there are 700 seminarians. The last official census of 1946 indicates for the department of the Seine a population of 4,775,711 inhabitants. The diocesan statistics commission estimates the Catholics of the archdiocese at 3,312,000.

During the last 20 years, 70% of newborns in the diocese have received the Sacrament of Baptism. But this proportion is in all likelihood lower than reality, because many Parisian children are baptized in the countryside, where they spend their first years. The proportion of Baptisms in relation to births is currently increasing. The Catholic schools of the diocese have 50,000 pupils. Religious practice varies greatly depending on the areas of the city. In P. itself the proportion of practicing Catholics is higher than in the more proletarianized areas; but it always remains insufficient because the principal obstacle to religious life is given by the density of population, which makes pastoral work very difficult.

To remedy this serious drawback, the parishes have been divided into "quartiers". Catholic Action works actively in P. The principal groups are the National Federation of Catholic Action (for men), the Women's League of Catholic Action (for women), the specialized movements of the Jeunesse catholique for both sexes (Jeunesse étudiante, Jeunesse indépendante, Jeunesse ouvrière), the Scouts and the Guides, the patronages and the Cœurs vaillants and the Ames vaillantes. Throughout the archdiocese there are approximately 200,000 members among all the groups of Catholic Action under the Direction des oeuvres diocésaines.

One of the characteristics of P. consists in the existence of an administration diocésaine des étrangers directed by an auxiliary bishop, assisted by a vicar general. This subdivision of the diocese comprises 508,945 souls and has 27 churches, chapels and missions intended for the faithful of 35 nations and different rites; 70 priests belonging to the various nations and rites are assigned to this ministry. The most important of all the missions is the Italian one directed by the Scalabrinian Fathers. This mission distributes more than 10,000 Easter Communions to the faithful of peninsular origin.

Suffragans of P. are the episcopal sees of Blois, Chartres, Meaux, Orléans, Versailles.

Giovanni Rupp

I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE DIOCESE

The old Gallic city of Lutetia Parisiorum (Λογκατζικίλ Περταίων), already mentioned by Caesar (52 B.C.: De bello Gallico, VI, 3), was situated on one of the islands of the Seine. In Roman times the city's area then extended south of the river on the slope of the hill of St. Genevieve, and P., by virtue of its geographical position, became a strategic and commercial center of primary importance in Lugdunensis Senonia. Christianity must have appeared there quite early, but until the whole of the 2nd century P. was nothing other than a presbyteral "parochia" of Lyons, the only diocese of the Gauls. It was organized as a diocese around the middle of the 3rd century, and its protobishop was St. Dionysius, whom Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc., I; In gloria Martyrum, 71: ed. W. Arndt-B. Krusch, in MGH, Script. rerum Merov., I, pp. 48, 535) places among the seven bishops who came to Gaul in 250. Of this Saint, martyred probably under Valerian (258) and listed in the Auxerre recension of the Martir. geronimiano under 9 October together with the priest Eleutherius and the deacon Rusticus (Martyr. Hieronymianum, pp. 547-48), very little is known, and the legend soon took possession of his personality. Before St. Gregory of Tours, St. Dionysius was treated by the legendary Passio of pseudo-Fortunatus, called from its incipit: Gloriosae (BHL 2171), which has him sent to Gaul "a successoribus Apostolorum," and by the Vita Genovefae, 17 (BHL, 3335), written around 520, where, in recension A, apparently interpolated, this successor is identified with Pope St. Clement. These two documents, whose biographical value for the Saint is very slight, have the merit of attesting the existence of the cult of St. Dionysius in P. at the end of the 5th century (the church built over his tomb by the Parisians at the invitation of St. Genevieve dates back to around 475) and at the beginning of the 6th century, a cult which moreover around 520 was also known at Bordeaux, where Bishop Amelius built a basilica in honor of the Saint (cf. Venantius Fortunatus, Carmina, I, 11: ed. F. Leo-B. Krusch in MHG, Auctores antiquissimi, IV, I, p. 13).

With the beginning of the 9th century the Parisian protobishop came to be identified with Dionysius the Areopagite (v.) and to his martyrdom was added the very well-known scene of the cephalophory (v. MARTIRIO E MARTIRE, vol. VIII, coll. 241-42). The documents on which these two new legends are based, regarded thereafter as undisputed historical facts until the 17th century, are the Passio anonyma, called from its incipit: Post beatam et gloriosam (BHL, 2178), written around 825 and translated into Greek before 833 (BHG, 554), and the Passio ss. Dionyssi, qui a loco Ariopagita et Sociorum (BHL, 2175) of Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis (814-40), one of whose sources is precisely the aforementioned Passio anonyma.

Pietro Frutaz

After Dionysius the Church of P. experienced a period of obscurity. Nevertheless in 360 a Council presided over by St. Hilary in person was held on the banks of the Seine. Clovis and St. Clotilde, who converted France to Catholicism, would have their burial in P. In the Merovingian era, great bishops such as St. Germanus of P. and St. Landericus, and great personages, such as St. Audoin and St. Eligius, would maintain the religious prestige of P. The Carolingian era would mark a certain decline of the Cathedral, and only the intellectual influence of the abbey of St-Denis deserves to be remembered, and then, at the time of the Norman invasions, the heroic attitude of Bishop Gozlin (884-86), defensor civitatis.

At the beginning of the second millennium the University of P. was born (v. below, no. IV), where the greatest doctors of the Middle Ages would hold chairs. It suffices to mention St. Albert the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Bonaventure, Alexander of Hales, Duns Scotus. Among their pupils the Parisian schools count several popes, among them Innocent III. Among the bishops of P. there were eminent theologians: Peter Lombard (1157-60), Maurice of Sully, the builder of Notre-Dame (1160-96), William of Auvergne (1228-49), Stephen Tempier (1268-79). Odo of Sully (1196-1208) was an esteemed canonist, author of the first synodal Statutes, which would be imitated in several dioceses.

In the 14th-15th centuries, despite their erroneous ideas concerning the relations between the popes and the councils, Cardinal Peter of Ailly and the chancellor G. Gerson still brought distinction to the University of P. In the 16th century the decline became manifest. But P. counts among its pupils St. Francis de Sales and St. Ignatius and among its professors St. Francis Xavier. The spiritual level of the people was lowered by the wars of religion. Illustrious bishops such as Cardinals Stephen de Poncher, John du Bellay, Peter de Gondi are more notable for their literary, political and diplomatic gifts than for pastoral zeal. On the other hand, the 17th century marks in P. a renewal of Catholicism. Bérulle founded the Oratory of France and the first Parisian Carmel, assisted by the blessed Mary of the Incarnation; Jean-Jacques Olier established St. Sulpice; St. Vincent de Paul, assisted by St. Louise de Marillac, founded the Lazarists and the Daughters of Charity. Gregory XV, on 30 October 1622, raised P. to a metropolitan see. Toward the end of the same century the voice of Bossuet (v.) was often raised from the pulpits of the diocese, but Jansenism and Gallicanism and above all unbelief produced great harm. In the 18th century P. had the great archbishop Christopher de Beaumont, who struggled courageously against Gallicanism, defended the Jesuits, condemned Voltaire and refuted Rousseau. But in that century the most authentic glories of P. were the numerous martyrs, victims of the Revolution (1792-93), several of whom were beatified by Pius XI. After the signing of the Concordat between the Holy See and France and the journey of Pius VII to P., Catholic life resumed on new foundations. But revolutionary unbelief had left great traces in the crowds. The number of parishes and churches reopened was very insufficient.

The statesmen (generally Voltairians) applied the Concordat in a manner hardly favorable to Catholicism. Nevertheless the 19th century was a period of renewal: St. Catherine Labouré in 1830 made her Marian visions known to the world; Lacordaire from the pulpit of Notre-Dame reopened to the cultivated Parisian classes the great truths of the faith; all the religious Orders suppressed by the Revolution reappeared; a fine effort was made by free education, primary and secondary and then also higher. New great churches arose (the Madeleine, St-Augustin, the Trinité, etc.), and chapels were opened in the suburbs. The 19th century would end, however, without having fulfilled all its promises. The finest work of the end of the century is the basilica of the Sacred Heart at Montmartre, whose erection would be decreed by the National Assembly in 1871.

In the 20th century, Paris and all of France experienced the religious persecution unleashed by Combism. Cardinal Richard, a courageous defender of the rights of the Church, was expelled by force of arms from his episcopal residence. But between the two wars (1918-39) a true religious renewal manifested itself in Paris. Works for youth flourished; the University was partially re-Christianized; great Catholic writers restored the intellectual prestige of the Church. Cardinal Verdier (1929-40) founded a hundred new centers of worship.

The Second World War, the German occupation and the liberation made their repercussions felt on Parisian religious life. But the gains of the preceding period were preserved. In Sept. 1951 the vote of the National Assembly, which made the situation of free education less precarious, proved the Catholic vitality of Paris and of France.

II. ABBEYS, SANCTUARIES AND RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS

The diocese of P. has had many male and female abbeys, some of which were of notable importance in the history of the Church. The oldest of all is the abbey of St-Denis, two leagues from Paris. Its Basilica, erected under the care of St. Genevieve (5th century), was rebuilt by Dagobert (7th century). The Benedictines entered it in 656 and remained there until the Revolution (1789). In the 9th century St-Denis was the center of the Carolingian renaissance, with Hilduin, Abbo and Hincmar; in the 12th century it reached its apogee of prosperity with Abbot Suger, regent of the Kingdom; he had the present Basilica built, completed by St. Louis. Most of the kings of France were buried there. The abbey of St-Germain-des-Prés, founded in 558 by Childebert and dedicated to the Spanish martyr St. Vincent, later took the name of the Parisian bishop who had consecrated it and was buried there for a long time. The abbey was destroyed several times and received its definitive form in the 11th century; it is one of the oldest monuments of P., and the most learned Benedictines of the 17th century belonged to its monastery, namely Mabillon (v.), Montfaucon (v.) and their confreres.

Among the monasteries of the Canons Regular, mention should be made of the abbey of St. Victor of the 12th century, erected by Bishop Galon (Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, William of Champeaux, the "Victorines"), and the abbey of St. Genevieve. Over the course of the centuries, the Carmelites of the Place Maubert, the Dominicans of St-Jacques, installed there by St. Dominic himself, the Capuchins of St-Honoré (Benedict of Canfeld) and the Jesuits of the Faubourg St-Antoine distinguished themselves.

At present P. counts religious belonging to most of the various Orders or Congregations. The most important monasteries are those of the Benedictines of St. Mary "de la Source", of the Franciscans and of the Dominicans. The most celebrated female monasteries of P. were those of St-Martial, founded by St. Eligius on the island of the city, the Franciscan nuns of Longchamp of the blessed Isabella, and of Port-Royal (an abbey flourishing in the 17th century but fallen into Jansenism), the Val-de-Grâce, Montmartre, the Carmel of Notre-Dame des Champs. All these monasteries have now disappeared, but P. today counts 400 religious houses. Besides the churches already mentioned, P. contains important sanctuaries. First among them is the cathedral of Notre-Dame. The laying of the first stone was carried out by Pope Alexander III in 1163; the building was raised by Bishop Maurice de Sully in the Cité, on the site of the ancient église de Paris, several times destroyed and rebuilt.

Parisians profess a great devotion to many other sanctuaries, such as the chapel of the martyrdom of St. Denis at the foot of the slope of Montmartre, where the Society of Jesus was founded, the church of St-Etienne du Mont, where St. Genevieve, patroness of P., is buried, the chapel of the miraculous medal, the site of the apparition of 1830; the church of Notre-Dame des Victoires, seat of the archconfraternity of the Immaculate Heart of Mary; the chapel of the Carmel, where the relics of the French martyrs beatified by Pius XI are venerated.

Among the most distinguished monuments of P. not yet noted, one must recall, in the Romanesque age, the ancient church of St-Martin des Champs; in the Gothic period the churches of St-Severin, St-Merry, St-Gervais, St-Laurent and above all the Ste Chapelle of the Palais de Justice, erected by St. Louis to serve as a reliquary for the crown of thorns brought from Constantinople in 1239. At present, however, the relic is found in the Treasury of Notre-Dame of P. The Ste Chapelle is adorned with very large multicolored stained-glass windows of the 13th century forming a marvelously harmonious whole. In the Renaissance many notable buildings were erected, such as St-Eustache and St-Etienne du Mont. The classical period also counts important monuments such as the chapels of Val-de-Grâce (by Mansart), the church of St-Sulpice (by Servandoni), the ancient church of Ste-Geneviève or Pantheon (by Soufflot), the Madeleine (by Constant d'Ivry).

Cardinal Verdier (1929-40) had numerous churches built in modern style, a large part of which are still unfinished. One of the most notable is the church of St-Esprit, the work of the architect Tournon. Also notable are those of St-Pierre de Chaillot, Ste-Agnès d'Alfort, St-Rédempteur de Vanves, the work of dom Remy Belleau.

Giovanni Rupp

III. THE COUNCILS OF PARIS

Under this term are included national and provincial councils, synods, assemblies, councils of bishops, etc., held at Paris or in its vicinity, convoked by the ecclesiastical authorities (sometimes by the pope or the pontifical legate) and also, especially in the more remote periods, by the civil authorities (the kings and emperors of France). There were mixed councils, both as regards the problems and as regards the persons who took part in them, because, besides the clergy, laymen also took part. Owing to the uncertainty of the sources and in the absence of a definitive study, it has not yet been possible to give a precise list of the years and the number of the Councils of Paris, which are of the greatest importance, because of the questions dealt with and also because of the political, religious and scientific position (University) of the city, not only for France, but also for Europe. The influence of the conclusions, decrees and canons was often felt throughout the whole of the Christian West.

Some of the principal ones are mentioned. In the Synod, which was held in the year 360 (or 361), the Church of France condemned the formula of the faith accepted at Rimini, upholding the positions of the general Council of Nicaea; 557 ca., and 10 canons were made regarding marriage, the election of bishops, etc. The Council of 825 was assembled on account of the iconoclast controversy in the West. That of 829 is important for the ordinances concerning the clergy, the civil power (the duties of the king toward his subjects and vice versa), the laity, etc. In 1051 the errors of Berengar and of Scotus Eriugena on the Eucharist were condemned; 1147: Pope Eugene IV presided over the Council which examined the doctrine of Gilbert de la Porrée on the Most Holy Trinity; 1185, 1188: Councils convoked for the Crusades; 1212 (or 1213): reforms of the secular clergy, religious men, religious women, bishops, feasts, etc.; 1224 and 1226: against the Albigensians; 1310: the cause of the Order of the Templars; 1395, 1408: Synods to facilitate the end of the Western Schism; 1528: the errors of Luther condemned. In 1811 Napoleon assembled the so-called National Council in order to exert pressure upon Pius VII, but the Council declared itself incompetent to deal with the questions proposed. In 1849: a Synod important for its far-sighted views; and those of the beginning of the 20th century for the position taken regarding the laws against the freedom of the Church.

IV. THE STUDY CENTER

Paris is one of the major cultural centers in the world, for the quantity and variety of its schools, academies, societies, libraries, bookshops, museums, and scientific and artistic collections.

1. The ancient University

In the Middle Ages there were in Paris 3 schools: that of the cathedral of Notre-Dame, where for centuries the 4 liberal arts were taught according to the ancient method; that of St. Victor, where William of Champeaux, Hugh and Richard taught; and that of St. Geneviève, made famous by Abelard. Today it is held that the University was not the fusion of the three schools, but the development of that of Notre-Dame (also called insulana, because it was on the "island"), illustrated by the "magister Sententiarum," Peter Lombard: its documents go back to the year 1200; and immediately afterward it appears as Universitas magistrorum et scholorium. Soon there developed there, alongside that of the arts (or philosophy), the Faculties of theology, canon law, civil law and medicine, over which the "deans" presided. The general head was the "chancellor" of Notre-Dame, from whose jurisdiction the University would later seek to make itself independent. Great was the number of students, predominantly ecclesiastical, who were divided, according to their origin, into four "nations": Gallicans, Normans, Picards, English or Germans. Each national association had as its head a "procurator"; the "procurators" elected the "rector," their general representative and head of the faculty of arts, who later also centralized the powers of the "chancellor." As lodging for the poorest students, and also for masters, collegia were erected, also called studia dotata, which later became teaching institutes as well, among which famous was the one founded, in 1257, by Robert de Sorbon, chaplain of King St. Louis (whence the name of the "Sorbonne"). Various religious Orders also founded houses for their students; thus arose the Studia generalis of the Dominicans and the Franciscans. At first the professors were only from the secular clergy; with the strengthening of the mendicant Orders, the religious too progressively won chairs: a reaction arose from this, which degenerated into a "struggle," led by William of St-Amour, whose adversaries were Albert the Great, Bonaventure and Thomas. In 1256 Pope Alexander IV pronounced in favor of the religious. The numerous privileges granted by the Popes and the Kings helped to make the University an independent corporation, a kind of third power, after the Papacy and the Empire, especially during the great Western Schism (whence the Studium was considered, for France, as a counterweight to the German Imperium and the Italian Sacerdotium).

From the 13th to the 14th century the University of Paris was the greatest center of theological science for the whole West, and Scholasticism reached its greatest splendor there. Then its decline began, to which various factors contributed (wars, schism, competition from other schools, growing dependence on the French crown). It fought Jansenism, but favored Gallicanism. Since around 1700 it leaned toward the Jansenists, it saw its privileges diminished by the Pope, and slowly lost its scientific primacy. With the French Revolution it was suspended (1793). With Napoleon its new period of life begins within the general framework of the "imperial University"; in 1896 it resumes, with legal personality, the name of "Université de Paris."

2. The Catholic University

The spiritual heritage of the glorious past has been taken up by the "Institut catholique" (cf. the letter of Pius XI, Si per hoc, of 28 Oct. 1925, for the 50th anniversary of the Institute, in AAS, 17 [1925], p. 573 ff.). Erected in 1875, by virtue of the law of 12 July 1875, as a "free institution of higher education," it had as its seat the historic "couvent des Carmes." First rector and its true founder was Msgr. M. d'Hulst ([v.] 1875-96), then Msgr. P.-L. Péchenard (1896-1907), then Msgr. A. Baudrillart ([v.] 1907-42), created cardinal by Pius XI.

It has the Faculties of theology, canon law, philosophy, civil law, letters and sciences. To that of theology, erected by Leo XIII, with the bull In magna of 10 Dec. 1889 (Leonis XIII P. M. Acta, IX, pp. 267-70), are annexed the "Ecole des langues orientales" and the "Institut d'études sociales et internationales." Since 1913 the Catholic Institute possesses a "Scuola superiore di scienze economiche e commerciali" (cf. letter of Pius X, Nolamus, 8 Oct. 1913, in AAS, 5 [1913], p. 489 ff.); on it also depends the "Institut agricole" of Beauvais.

The university district counts 29 dioceses (six ecclesiastical provinces: Paris, Rouen, Reims, Besançon, Sens, Bourges), whose bishops are the "patrons" of the Institute, of which they form the Superior Council. Grand chancellor is the archbishop of Paris. The statutes, conformed to the apostolic constitution Deus scient. Dominus, were approved by decree of 6 July 1936 by the S. Congr. of Seminaries and Universities of Studies. It has a university Seminary ("des Carmes"), for some priests, entrusted to the Sulpicians.

Igino Cecchetti

3. Other institutions

a) The OBSERVATOIRE NATIONAL, established by Louis XIV in 1667. The building erected by Cl. Perrault (1667-72) is constructed in such a way that its four façades correspond to the cardinal points; the parallel of the southern façade gives the latitude of Paris, and the meridian that divides the building in two is that of Paris, though today it is regulated according to Greenwich. The palace houses the Bureau international de l'heure, a library and a museum of ancient instruments; b) the ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, founded by the Convention on 11 March 1794 and reorganized in 1852; admission is by competitive examination; at the end of the two-year course one may enter the corps of State engineers, of bridges, roads, aeronautics, engineering, etc.; c) the ECOLE NORMALE SUPÉRIEURE, created by the Convention on 30 Oct. 1794 and organized especially by the decree of 17 March 1808, which established the Imperial University in order to train the best teachers by the most rigorous methods. It is divided into the two sections of letters and sciences; d) the ECOLE SUPÉRIEURE DES MINES, for the training of mining engineers, founded in 1783; it occupies the old Hôtel Vendôme; attached to it are a museum of mineralogy and geology and a library; e) the INSTITUT NATIONAL DE FRANCE, founded on 22 pp. 1795 with the mission "to gather discoveries and perfect the arts and sciences." The law of 25 Oct. 1795 divided the Institute into three classes (physical and mathematical sciences, moral and political sciences, literature and fine arts). After further changes, a royal decree of 21 March 1816 reorganized it into 4 Academies, and another was added by royal decree of 26 Oct. 1832: the ACADÉMIE FRANÇAISE, which had originated in the meetings held from about 1629 at the home of the man of letters V. Conrart, but received its definitive form on the proposal of Card. Richelieu, from Louis XIII in 1635. Its members were at first 28, then fixed at 40, called "les 40 immortels." It was charged with compiling a dictionary of the French language, a rhetoric, a poetics and a grammar; the ACADÉMIE DES INSCRIPTIONS ET BELLES LETTRES descends from the "Petite Académie" founded in 1663 by J. B. Colbert. Its present title was given to it by Louis XV in 1716. Today it is composed of 40 full members, 15 free academicians, 12 foreign associates and 70 correspondents, of whom 30 are French and 40 foreign; the ACADÉMIE DES SCIENCES, also founded by Colbert in 1663, is divided into 11 sections; today it numbers 68 full members, including 2 perpetual secretaries, 10 free academicians, 12 non-resident members, six members with the same prerogatives as the free academicians, in the division created on 23 Jan. 1918 under the title: "Applications de la science à l'industrie"; 12 foreign associates and 116 correspondents; the ACADÉMIE DES BEAUX-ARTS, which was founded in 1795, comprises 41 full members, eight for each of the 55 sections, plus 1 permanent secretary; the ACADÉMIE DES SCIENCES MORALES ET POLITIQUES, which was founded in 1795, suppressed in 1803 and restored in 1832; it comprises 40 full members divided among 5 sections; it has 10 free members, 12 foreign associates and 60 correspondents. The Institut de France, with its 5 Academies, resides in the palace founded by Cardinal Mazarin as the residence of the Collège des Quatre nations, on a design by L. Le Vau (1662-68). Each Academy meets separately once a week; on 25 October the public assembly of the five Academies takes place. Outside the Institut de France there were founded: in 1820 the Académie de médecine, with 6 sections; in 1898 the Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences; f) the CONSERVATOIRE DE MUSIQUE ET DE DÉCLAMATION, founded by Sarrette. The Convention in 1795 made it a national institution. It occupies the former Jesuit College in rue Madrid and contains an instrumental museum and a music library; g) the CONSERVATOIRE NATIONAL DES ARTS ET MÉTIERS, established by the Convention on 10 October 1794, occupies a part of the former priory of St-Martin-des-Champs, and there practical courses and free public courses in the sciences applied to industry and the arts are held; it has a rich library and a series of collections; h) the COLLÈGE DE FRANCE founded in 1530 by Francis I at the request of French humanists and in particular of G. Budé (1468-1560); it then bore the title of Collège des lecteurs royaux, changed in the 17th century to Collège royal de France and by the Revolution to its present name. The free, public and gratuitous courses are for university-level advanced study and are given by government-appointed lecturers. It has 3 sections: mathematical, physical and natural sciences; philosophical sciences and sociology; philological and archaeological sciences; its seat is in Place Marcellin-Berthelot, and on the entrance door one reads: « Docet omnia »; i) the BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE is of ancient origin; Charles V had gathered a library at the Louvre, later dispersed and transferred to England; Louis XI reconstituted it at the Louvre. Louis XII enriched it with a collection taken at Naples; Francis I with oriental, Greek and Latin manuscripts; Henry IV with 800 manuscripts inherited from Catherine de' Medici. Great acquisitions were made under Louis XIV and XV. After various wanderings, between 1721 and 1727 it was transported to rue Richelieu in the Hôtel de Nevers, where it still is. With the Revolution the Library received all the collections of the suppressed abbeys and religious institutes; and from 1793 first one copy and then two of every printed copy in France, as legal deposit. It is one of the richest in the world and is divided into four departments: printed books (ca. 5,000,000 vols.) and geographical maps (300,000); manuscripts (125,000) and parchments; engravings (3,000,000); medals and coins (ca. 250,000) and antiquities; it has a public reading room and various study rooms; l) the ARCHIVES NATIONALES, established by the Assembly in 1789 and placed in 1808 in the former Hôtel Soubise, erected by Delamair between 1705-1709; since 1927 also in the former Hôtel Rohan. It is an imposing collection of documents ranging from a diploma of Chlothar II (625) to our own days. On the first floor is gathered the Musée des archives with the most remarkable documents displayed; m) the CITÉ UNIVERSITAIRE begun in 1920, with the donation of 10 million by the spouses E. and L. Deutsch de la Maurthe, with 7 pavilions in Norman style on a design by the architect L. Bechmann, to house university students from the various provinces of France. Other pavilions were added for Canadian, Belgian, Argentine, English, Japanese, Dutch, Indochinese, Cuban, Armenian, Danish and Swedish students. There are then the foundations of Monaco, Greece, Switzerland, the United States, the Institut National Agronomique; a Spanish College; an international House and the Church offered in 1936 by Mrs. P. Lebaudy; n) the BIBLIOTHÈQUE DE L'ARSENAL, occupies part of the former Palace of the Grand Master of the artillery (1723, with 19th-century modifications). Founded in 1757 by the Marquis d'Argenson de Paulmy, enlarged by the Revolution with the Archives of the Bastille and the collections of the convents, in 1797 it became the BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE DE L'ARSENAL. It comprises 12,000 manuscripts, a million printed works; ca. 120,000 prints and the richest collection of all dramatic works from the origin of the theater in France, a collection of ca. 350 documents.

o) Museums: MUSÉE DU LOUVRE, in the former royal Palace, was constituted in 1791 with the royal collections; enlarged with gifts, war booty and purchases. It is divided into several sections: Egyptian, Asian, Greco-Roman antiquities, Middle Ages and Renaissance, 17th-19th centuries. The most remarkable is the painting section for the Italian and French schools. MUSÉE DU LUXEMBOURG, is dedicated to French Impressionist and living artists, and the MUSÉE JEU-DE-PAUME, at the Tuileries, to foreign schools. MUSÉE DES MONUMENTS FRANÇAIS. It is located in the Palais de Chaillot, where the « Direction des musées nationaux » also is. It is a precious collection of casts of ancient monuments of France and of full-scale reproductions of medieval pictorial cycles. MUSÉE GUIMET, from the name of its founder Emile Guimet (d. 1918), who had founded in 1879 in Lyon a museum of the religions, history and art of the Far East, together with a specialized library. It was transferred to P. in 1888. MUSÉE GALLIERA or MUSÉE BRIGNOLE-GALLIERA, from the former name of the duchess; it serves for temporary exhibitions. MUSÉE ENNERY from the name of its founder who gathered there art objects of the Far East. MUSÉE DE LA PAROLE, contains the history of the disc and the phonograph, with collections of records of famous voices, of dialects and of folklore. MUSÉE DES PHARES ET BALISES, contains an optical collection, of lighthouses, of plastic works, of buoys and their applications. MUSÉE POSTAL, with documents of the history of the post, philatelic collections and temporary exhibitions. MUSÉE JACQUEMART-ANDRÉ: the painter Nèlie Jacquemart (widow of Edouard André) dying in 1912 left to the State the Palace built by H. Parent with a superb collection of statues, paintings, ceramics, glass, bronzes, tapestries, from the Italian Renaissance up to the 18th century. MUSÉE BALZAC, in the house he inhabited in rue Raynouard; it contains mementos of the life and work of the novelist. MUSÉE CLEMENCEAU: in the apartment inhabited by the politician in rue Franklin. MUSÉE MARMOTTAN: in the Palace of its founder P. Marmottan, art historian, containing furniture, statues, paintings, tapestries of the Renaissance, of the First Empire and modern works. MUSÉE MOREAU: contains paintings, drawings, sketches of the painter Gustave Moreau (1826-98). MUSÉE CERNUSCHI, from its founder who established there a collection of the art of China and Japan. MUSÉE DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS: contains plans, dioramas, scale models of the great public works executed by French genius. MUSÉE DE L'AIR: collection of historic aircraft, scale models, aviation engines, aerostats, and their documentation. MUSÉE CARNAVALET: from the name of the Renaissance Palace, it contains the historical Museum of the city of P. MUSÉE DES THÉRIMES ET DE CLUNY: in the ancient Roman bath building where in the Middle Ages the abbots of Cluny adapted their residence in P., it contains a precious collection of medieval art. MUSÉE DES GOBELINS: collection of tapestries from the 15th to the 19th century; their display is periodically renewed. Attached to it are a manufactory and a repair workshop; p) in the Ministère de l'éducation nationale there are the following commissions: des sciences économiques et sociales; des travaux historiques, d'histoire et philologie, de géographie, which together form a Comité; notable is the Bulletin archéologique du Comité des travaux historiques, published since 1882.

The Centre national de la Recherche promotes the publications of a group of scientific periodicals such as: the Revue archéologique, founded in 1844; the Revue de l'histoire des religions, which by 1951 had reached vol. 140; the Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes, which in 1951 is at vol. 109; the Annales du Musée Guimet; the Revue des études hycantines, 9 vols. by 1951; the Archives de l'Orient chrétien; Gallia. Fouilles et monuments archéologiques en France métropolitaine, since 1943. Under the auspices of the Société archéologique de France, the Bulletin monumental has been published in Paris since 1836, and since 1834 the proceedings of the Congrès archéologiques de France. The Fondation Eugène Piot has been the publisher since 1894 of the Monuments et mémoires publiés par l'Académie des Inscr. et belles lettres. The Journal des Savants, founded in 1665, was revived in 1816 by the Académie des Inscr. et belles lettres. This academy has published its Comptes rendus since 1857, which were preceded by the Mémoires et histoires de l'Académie royale des Inscr. et belles lettres and, from 1815, by the Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscr. et belles lettres publiés par divers savants. Mention should then be made of the scientific publications: Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires, from 1850 to 1891, when they became Nouvelles Archives des missions scientifiques until 1924; the Société de l'Art français published Les Archives de l'art français from 1851-52, later changed to Bulletin de l'art français; the Société de l'histoire de Paris published the Mémoires from 1851. Since 1859 the Gazette des beaux-arts has been printed. Since 1876 the Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome was founded. In 1951 the Revue des arts was begun. - See plates LXVII-LXIX.