Indochinese, Federation

INDOCHINESE, FEDERATION. - This is the name given to the complex of territories controlled by France in the peninsula of the same name; territories which, before the last great war, comprised the colony of Cochinchina and the four protectorates of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia and Laos. Before surrendering, the Japanese, who had occupied the country, proclaimed (July 1945) the independence of the unitary State of Viet-Nam (comprising Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina), which was claimed, after the Japanese surrender, by the local communists against France. After lengthy negotiations, which followed military operations conducted by the French with varying fortune, France recognized the independence first of Viet-Nam and then of the other two protectorates within the framework of the F. I. and of the French Union. The five members of the F. I. thus enjoy full administrative autonomy, and are answerable to a French high commissioner who has the function of coordinating common services.

I. GEOGRAPHY

The territory of the F. I. corresponds to the eastern part of the Indochinese peninsula: the landscape there is quite varied; it is predominantly mountainous or hilly in the N., while in the central regions it spreads out into plateaus deeply cut by rivers, and in the S.W. it sinks into the broad alluvial zone of the Mekong. The climate is, on the whole, tropical, with high temperatures even inland and abundant but irregular rains, though related to the monsoon regime. The acclimatization of whites is as a rule rather difficult, and the more so the further one goes toward the south.

The population (27 million inhabitants; 37 per sq. km.), quadrupled from 1800 to the present, is very irregularly distributed, being concentrated on the coasts as well as in correspondence with the deltas of the Song-coi (Red River) and the Mekong. There are few urban centers, of which nevertheless the capital Saigon (Cochinchina) today counts about 700 thousand inhabitants. Following, in demographic importance, are Cholon (480 thousand inhabitants), Long Xuyen (148 thousand), also in Cochinchina, Hanoi (Tonkin, 140 thousand inhabitants in 1945), Pnom Penh (Cambodia, 103 thousand inhabitants in 1945) and Haiphong (Tonkin, 100 thousand inhabitants). In the mosaic of peoples inhabiting the country, the Annamites (16.7 million souls), the Cambodians (2.9 million) and the Thai (1.4 million) of Laos and Upper Tonkin stand out. The Chinese number over 600 thousand, the French barely 43 thousand.

* With the Condor Islands 175 sq. km. and 3,000 inhabitants.

The F. I. is a typically agricultural country, with tropical and equatorial crops. In normal times those of rice and maize prevailed, which made a large contribution to exports. Among the industrial crops, rubber, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, pepper, coffee, etc. are notable. The forests (more than half the total area) provide fine timber. Livestock raising is of slight importance; fishing, on the other hand, is a great resource. The subsoil yields above all anthracite, iron, zinc in Tonkin, phosphates in Annam, and then tin, antimony, tungsten, gold, etc. Large-scale modern industry is only just beginning, but its possibilities are very wide in every branch.

The consequences of the war and the present unstable political situation have compromised the ongoing development of the local economy; communications and trade have also been noticeably affected.

Giuseppe Caraci

II. EVANGELIZATION

The first missionaries arrived in Indochina in the 16th century. Portuguese and Spanish Dominicans and Franciscans attempted missionary foundations in Cambodia and Cochinchina. The continuous wars, especially between Siam and Cambodia, prevented the mission's stability, however. Only in 1615 did a lasting mission begin on the part of the Jesuits. Favored by Portuguese trade between Macao and the two Annamite Kingdoms, Cochinchina and Tonkin, the Jesuits were able to establish themselves in 1615 in Cochinchina and in 1626 in Tonkin. They succeeded in winning the favor of the regents and the mandarins, and in planting Christianity despite sporadic expulsions and persecutions. It was the great merit of Fr. Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660), founder and apostle of the Annamite Church, to have organized the mission by means of the institute of catechists: it was they who, during the ensuing persecutions, after the expulsion of the missionaries from Cochinchina in 1645 and from Tonkin in 1663, preserved Christianity. It was also Fr. de Rhodes who urged the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide to appoint vicars apostolic for Indochina.

The first, François Pallu (1626-84) and Pierre Lambert de la Motte (1624-79), appointed for Tonkin and Cochinchina in 1658, because of the persecution initially remained in Siam. From there the first missionaries of the Seminary of the Foreign Missions of Paris in 1666 secretly penetrated into Annam. The first indigenous priests, taken from among the catechists, were ordained without knowledge of the Latin language, and the women's Institute of the "Lovers of the Cross" was erected. In 1669 the Jesuits returned and in 1676 the Dominicans also arrived, coming from the Philippines. In 1678 Tonkin was divided into two apostolic vicariates, the eastern and the western.

In the 18th century the Indochinese mission suffered many persecutions. In Cochinchina, under the government of the Chua Nguyen there were the great persecutions from 1698 to 1702 and from 1714 to 1727. But under the Chua Ninh-Vuong (1726-1739) and Vo-vuong (1739-65), until 1750 the mission was able to develop freely. In this year the Paris Missionaries, the Franciscans and the Jesuits, who had acquired great influence at court, were expelled. Subsequently they were able to return to the country in very limited numbers and to work there in secret. In Tonkin, on the other hand, under the regime of the Chua Trinh, the persecutions continued almost without interruption. The Paris Missionaries, the Jesuits, the Dominicans and the Augustinians worked in the two vicariates of the east and the west, increasing the number of the indigenous clergy, which, with the help of the catechists, succeeded in continuing the missionary work even during the bloody persecutions. The situation worsened further in the second half of the 18th century because of the civil wars and the uninterrupted persecutions, after the new Tai-song dynasty in 1765 succeeded in subjugating Tonkin and in 1774 Cochinchina. With the ascension to the throne of Nguyen Anh, who later took the name Gia-long, the last of the Nguyen family, who with the help of the French, especially of the vicar apostolic Pierre-Joseph-Georges Pigneau de Béhaine (1741 [1771]-99) won the struggle against the Tai-song dynasty and in 1802 united Cochinchina and Tonkin into a single empire, Vietnam, the mission enjoyed relative freedom. Gia-long did not forget that the vicar apostolic Pigneau de Béhaine had been the powerful promoter of his cause. The Paris Missionaries and the Dominicans continued their work in the missions. But under his successor Minh-Mang the tremendous persecution broke out in 1833 which dragged on, with few pauses, for over 50 years. Numerous bishops and missionaries of the Seminary of Paris and of the Dominican Order, hundreds of indigenous priests, catechists and "Lovers of the Cross" sisters and tens of thousands of Christians suffered martyrdom. Of this band of heroes 4 bishops, 9 missionaries, 32 indigenous priests, 20 seminarians and catechists, 19 Christians were beatified in 1900 and in 1909. Yet, despite all these persecutions and martyrdoms, the destruction of churches, the exile of Christians, the mission endured, indeed made progress. In 1886 France occupied all of Indochina and in 1887 united the Kingdoms of Tonkin, Cochinchina and Cambodia, to which in 1893 Laos was added, into the Indochinese Union under the dominion of France. The bloody persecutions ceased; however the mission had to suffer not a little under the anticlericalism of the French officials, because of the secularization of the schools, and because of the government's interference in the internal affairs of the Church. Despite this the mission made notable progress, especially in Tonkin and in Cochinchina; in Cambodia and in Laos, on the other hand, the progress has been lesser.

During the persecution the mission was subdivided. Cochinchina in 1844 was divided into western and eastern Cochinchina; from the former Cambodia was detached in 1850, from the latter northern Cochinchina in the same year. Tonkin, already in 1678 divided into two vicariates, was likewise newly reorganized. In 1846 southern Tonkin was erected, in 1848 central Tonkin, in 1883 western Tonkin and in 1901 maritime Tonkin. Further subdivisions in the course of the 20th century increased the number of apostolic vicariates to 17, of which 3 entrusted to the indigenous clergy; moreover an apostolic prefecture was erected.

After the First World War, in 1922, an apostolic visitor was sent and in 1925 the apostolic delegation was erected; in 1934 the first plenary Council of Indochina was held. Other religious Congregations went there: in 1928 the Redemptorists, in 1928 the Franciscans and the Sulpicians in 1929 for special works. The Oblates of Mary Immaculate took in 1933 a part of Laos. Since 1919 there also exists a convent of indigenous Cistercians. The Brothers of the Christian Schools maintain flourishing schools, helped by two Congregations of indigenous brothers. The works of charity and education are directed by several Congregations of European sisters, in the first place by the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres; the indigenous "Lovers of the Cross" occupy themselves principally with primary schools. Since 1861 there exists in Saigon a monastery of Carmelites; 6 others were founded subsequently in Indochina.

The Japanese occupation during the Second World War, nationalism, the proclamation of independence in 1945, the wars between France and Vietnam caused serious difficulties for the Church. A true persecution broke out: many European missionaries, indigenous priests and sisters and very numerous Christians were massacred, a great part of the Christians forced to flee and entire missionary territories with their churches and ecclesiastical institutes more or less completely devastated. Although in 1948 a precarious agreement was reached between France and the provisional government of Vietnam, the struggles with the communist Viet-Minh party, occupying a great part of Tonkin, continue.

Giovanni Rommerskirchen

III. ECCLESIASTICAL CIRCUMSCRIPTIONS

According to the Annuario ecclesiastico 1951, the I. F. counts the following apostolic vicariates and apostolic prefectures, which are here arranged in alphabetical order: BACNINH, erected as apostolic vicariate of northern Tonkin in 1883, current name since 1924, entrusted to the Dominicans; BUICHU, erected as apostolic vicariate of central Tonkin in 1848, current name since 1942, entrusted since 1950 to the secular clergy; HAIPHONG, erected as apostolic vicariate of eastern Tonkin in 1678, current name since 1924, entrusted to the Dominicans; HANOI, erected as apostolic vicariate of Tonkin in 1658, with the division of 1678 took the name of western Tonkin, current name since 1924, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; HUE, erected as apostolic vicariate of northern Cochinchina in 1850, current name since 1924, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; HUNG-HOA, erected as apostolic vicariate of upper Tonkin in 1895, current name since 1924, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; KONTUM, erected as apostolic vicariate in 1932, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; LANGSON and CAOBANG, erected as apostolic prefecture in 1913, apostolic vicariate in 1939, entrusted to the Dominicans; PHAT DIEM, erected as apostolic vicariate of maritime Tonkin in 1901, current name since 1924, entrusted since 1935 to the secular clergy; lar; PHNOM PENH, erected an apostolic vicariate of Cambodia in 1870, since 1924 its present name, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; QUINHON, erected an apostolic vicariate of Cochinchina in 1658, took the name of Eastern Cochinchina in 1844, since 1924 its present name, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; SAIGON, erected an apostolic vicariate of Western Cochinchina in 1844, since 1924 its present name, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; THAI BINH, erected an apostolic vicariate in 1936, entrusted to the Dominicans; THA-

KHEH, apostolic prefecture erected on 21 Dec. 1950 by division of the former apostolic vicariate of Laos erected in 1899, and entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; THAN HOA, erected an apostolic vicariate in 1932, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; VIENTIANE and LUANG PRABANG, an apostolic prefecture erected in 1938 and entrusted to the Oblates of Mary Immaculate; VINH, erected an apostolic vicariate of Southern Tonkin in 1846, since 1924 its present name, entrusted to the Society for Foreign Missions of Paris; VINH-LONG, erected an apostolic vicariate in 1938, entrusted to the secular clergy.

Giovanni Rommerskirchen

IV. LEGAL STATUS OF THE CHURCH IN INDOCHINA

It is currently governed by the decrees of 16 Jan. and 6 Dec. 1939, which recognize for the Church freedom of worship, of teaching and of assistance.

1. Freedom of worship

Art. 2 of the Treaty of 5 June between France and Annam expressly lays down: "The citizens of the two nations of France and Spain may practice the Christian religion in the Kingdom of Annam, and the subjects of this Kingdom, without distinction, who wish to embrace and follow the Christian religion, may do so freely; but those who have no desire to become Christians shall not be forced to do so."

2. Freedom of teaching

In Tonkin and Annam freedom of teaching clearly followed from the Treaty of 1874 (between France and Annam): "The bishops, the missionaries and the Annamese priests shall have the right to acquire and lease land, and to build churches and schools." The right to build schools would seem rather theoretical if it were not combined with the right to teach in those same schools. In Cambodia the Treaty of Protectorate of 11 Aug. 1863 (art. 15) was even more explicit: "Catholic missionaries shall have the right to preach and to teach. They may, with the authorization of the Cambodian government, build schools, etc."

3. Freedom of assistance

That is, of establishing institutions of medical and social charity. Such assistance, provided by Catholic religious sisters, is entirely free in I. In Tonkin and Annam, the Treaty of 15 March 1874 alludes to charitable institutions and authorizes their creation indirectly: "The bishops, the missionaries and the Annamese priests shall have the right to found hospitals and orphanages." Finally, the decree of 9 Nov. 1923 and the ordinances of 10 Dec. 1924 and 7 Feb. 1925 (all issued by the French authorities) organized the administrative supervision of private charitable institutions in I., with the aim of ensuring good hygienic conditions and of controlling the morality and loyalty of those in charge. But the Catholic religious sisters did not devote themselves solely to purely private works of assistance. They also cared for the sick in the civil hospitals of Hanoi, Saigon, etc. This state of affairs changed when the period of general secularization was inaugurated in France. The sisters were replaced by lay personnel (decree-ordinance of 20 Nov. 1904).

4. Recognition of juridical personality for the missions and the regime of ecclesiastical property

The decree of 16 Jan. 1939 sanctioned the concept of "mission," for the purposes of juridical recognition of ecclesiastical circumscriptions: apostolic vicariates, apostolic prefectures, considered as juridical entities independent of the religious Orders that direct them. Therefore the registration of property is done in the name of the mission, regularly endowed with civil personality. Art. 1 of the same decree of 16 Jan. 1939 lays down the creation of administrative councils, intended to represent the missions in acts of civil life: "The religious missions may establish administrative councils, which may acquire, possess, and preserve or alienate, in the name and on behalf of the mission represented, all movable and immovable property, all movable and immovable rights and every other interest. They have full powers to administer and dispose of the property belonging to the mission. They may stand in judgment and defend themselves."

Edoardo Pecoraro

V. ART

In the evolution of Indochinese art two main currents are distinguished, the Indian and the Chinese. The former prevails in the south, especially in Cambodia, where there was the flowering of an original art, rightly reappraised, such as that of the Khmer civilization, to which belong the splendid monuments of Angkor (12th century). The preceding art had instead left its finest expressions in the temples of Sambon Prei Kuck.

The Chinese current, prevalent in the north, is especially detectable in the art of Tonkin, Annam and Siam. Of particular importance is that of Siam, where an art of its own, however, asserts itself only in the 13th century; more colorful and tending toward decorativism appears the art of Annam. The French occupation marks without doubt the beginning of a period of decadence in Indochinese art, to which an attempt has recently been made to react with the creation of the School of Fine Arts of Hanoi by Vittorio Tardieu.

Christian art. — One of the most important makers of the Christianization of indigenous art was, in the last century, Fr. Luca Tran (b. in the province of Thanh-Hoa, between Tonkin and Annam, in 1825 and d. in 1899 at Phat-Diem). A hydraulic engineer and architect, he particularly distinguished himself in the development of the spring area around Phat-Diem, at the mouth of the Red River, where he built dikes, attended to drainage and irrigation works and built churches and chapels. In these, availing himself of the richest expressions of local art and of the work of indigenous artists, he knew how to create works that are at the same time an expression of tradition and of the new Christian faith. The cathedral of Phat-Diem, which he raised (1878-95), is a happy transformation of the pagoda, preceded by a great atrium as in the ancient Christian basilicas: the five richly carved portals, the 13 columns 16 meters high and 1 meter in diameter, each from a single trunk of lim wood, the rich high altar of red lacquer, the five graceful chapels, constitute the best solutions of the problem of missionary art. Inspired by local art is also the parish church of Thakhek in Laos, whose plan is however due to the French architect Tournon.

In painting, the painter Celso Le-Van-De, b. on 28 Aug. 1906 at Mocay in Cochinchina, belongs to the artistic current influenced by China. A graduate of the Academy of Fine Arts of the University of Hanoi, he was also in Paris for three years, indulging for some time in Western taste. But his purest expressions reveal a sensitive feeling for line that is entirely Asiatic and spontaneous.

Decorative art has furthermore produced embroideries, lacquers and inlays often of an exquisite taste. It has not been hesitated, with a spirit of understanding, "to bring into the patrimony of indigenous Christian art those elements that no longer have a superstitious meaning and that are traditional formulas of a simply ornamental flavor or that are susceptible of a Christian interpretation" (Costantini).

Gilberto Ronci

VI. SCHOOL SYSTEM

School instruction takes place: 1) in schools for the French, 2) in schools for the natives, 3) in Catholic missionary schools.

The schools for the French comprise 33 elementary schools, 6 higher elementary schools and 3 lycées in Hanoi, Saigon and Dalat. The natives are admitted only to the Lycée of Saigon and Dalat. The schools for the natives comprise 7,141 elementary schools, 19 higher elementary schools, 4 middle schools and 5 vocational schools. The Catholic missionary schools comprise 5,454 catechism and prayer schools, 1,877 elementary schools, 29 lower middle schools, 7 upper middle schools, 23 normal schools and 65 vocational schools. Professionals are trained at the University of Indochina in Hanoi, founded in 1917. The École française d'Extrême-Orient, in Hanoi, which stands under the patronage of the Institut de France, enjoys particular esteem. The education of the Catholic clergy is provided in 6 novitiates, 16 minor seminaries and 9 major seminaries. There are 18 schools for catechumens.