CISTERCIANS (Sacred Order of Cistercians). This name derives from Cistercium (Cîteaux), where on 22 March 1098 St Robert (q.v.), abbot of Molesme (1075–98), founded the first abbey of the Order (though austere and strict, eliminating usages introduced in many monasteries; hence in the first Charta caritatis one reads of the «rectissima via sanctae Regulae» [J. Turk, Charta carit. prior, in Analecta S. O. Cister., I (1945), p. 31]). Indeed, the first organisers insisted that in monastic observance the purity of the Rule should be foremost, on which Bl. Alberic had particularly insisted in his Instituta monachorum Cisterciensium de Molismo venientium; and freedom from every ecclesiastical and secular interference, such as had been secured to the first Cistercians by the Privilegium Romanum of Paschal II on 19 October 1100. The Exordium magnum S. O. Cist., from the end of the 12th century, gives a precise statement of this: «notum fiat posteris nostris, quantam statim in initio fundationis suae ab Apostolica Sede gratiam, favorem et libertatem Cisterciensis ecclesia promeruit». This was the beginning of the exemption, which, still relative, grew with the confirmation of the first Charta caritatis by Callistus II on 23 December 1119, until it became absolute with the bull of Lucius III of 21 November 1184. The unity among the various monasteries of the Order rests on the uniformity of observances: «una caritate, una regula similibusque vivamus moribus» (Charta caritatis, I, chaps. 53, 55). Recently J. Turk has recovered the first Charta caritatis, edited and commented on in the aforementioned Analecta (p. 11 ff.), where on p. 50 he states: 1) The first Charta caritatis was compiled in 1118. 2) It was modified in 1134–52, but probably not long before 1 August 1152. 3) The reasons for this modification were changed circumstances, such as the progress and evolution of the Order, and the aspiration of the *abbates primarii* for greater independence in their relations with the abbot of Cîteaux and with the General Chapters.
General in the monastery of Cîteaux. 4) The author of the first *Charta caritatis* was undoubtedly St Stephen Harding, abbot of Cîteaux. 5) The *Charta caritatis* given by St Stephen was a law, not a convention between him and the “primary abbots”; nor can the later *Charta caritatis* be considered a pact among the abbots. Rather, it was the influence of the other abbots that altered the first *Charta caritatis*. 6) The authority of the General Chapter and of the “primary abbots,” according to the first *Charta caritatis*, was not as extensive as in the second: on the contrary, the authority of the monastery of Cîteaux and of its abbot was greater in the first *Charta caritatis* than in the second. 7) The aspiration of the primary abbots for greater power did not accord with the mind of St Stephen. The development of the Order, in fact, shows that this aspiration proved harmful. 8) The bull of Clement IV (1265) should be regarded as something intermediate between the first and second *Charta caritatis*. In its content, the *Charta caritatis* constitutes the bond of unity; in chap. 1, indeed, the obligation and manner of observing and keeping the Rule of St Benedict in a uniform way are discussed; in chap. 2, of visitations, the law of filiation, and the precedence of abbots; in chap. 3, of the General Chapter of all the abbots; in chap. 4, of the administration of the monastery during a vacancy and of the election of a new abbot; in chap. 5, of the resignation of abbots and of disciplinary action against them. With the form of unity, centralism in the Order grew, though it was not absolute as at Cluny, but relative, inasmuch as each abbey or monastery enjoyed its own autonomy. The Order of the Cistercians grouped the individual monasteries together, each of which had its own abbot; nevertheless, they retained a particular dependence on the abbot of the mother abbey and on the General Chapter of all the abbots. The abbot of Cîteaux, as father of the entire Order, convokes and presides over the General Chapter. Observance was practiced in solitude or in error. To ensure that this solitude was respected, St Stephen established that “no count or prince of the place shall ever establish his seat in that church.” To maintain the spirit of simplicity and union with God, he wished poverty to be observed even in ecclesiastical furnishings. Thus arose the *Consuetudines* of the Cistercians, which were compiled in the 12th century. They comprise five parts: 1) origin of the monastery; 2) *Charta caritatis*; 3) bull of Callistus II of 23 Dec. 1119 approving the *Charta caritatis*; 4) statutes of the General Chapter of the Cistercians; 5) ecclesiastical offices.
Later, the statutes of the Cistercians were fixed in the *Libelli definitivi* of 1256, 1316, and 1350. The “most upright path of the holy Rule” perfectly harmonized the *Opus Dei* (the divine Office), spiritual reading, and manual labor, thus nourishing both body and soul in the natural and spiritual order, according to each one’s station. Already Abelard had well understood this, writing to St Bernard (PL 178, 340): “The institution of the Rule compels us to make a new work out of the old.” With this principle, in fact, the first Cistercians, regarding “rectitude,” following the Rule, first established and reformed the manner and order of divine service throughout in accordance with the traditions of the Rule, completely omitting the additions to the psalms, prayers, and litanies that indiscreet fathers had introduced on their own authority.
In the Cluniac liturgy, solemnity and pomp prevailed, whereas in that of the Cistercians, simplicity reigned as an expression of interior life. In fidelity to truth, the first Cistercians undertook the correction of the Bible and the reform of Gregorian chant. A demonstration of this spirit is Cistercian architecture. Yet great consideration was given to spiritual reading, which held first place after the divine Office and before manual labor, except in the summer season. Time was occupied in reading not only the sacred Bible, but also the Fathers and other authors who better elucidated the monastic life. Especially in the 12th century, illustrious Cistercian writers flourished in ascetic and mystical works. Notable in this field are commentaries on the Song of Songs and treatises *De anima*. From reading there arose a profound devotion, cultivated by many monks in many ways, toward the Passion of Jesus, the Sacred Heart, the Holy Eucharist, and the Virgin Mary. Among the early Cistercians there were also illustrious historians, such as Otto of Freising; many annalists and chroniclers, such as Helinand of Froidmont and Alberic of Trois-Fontaines, authors of the *Chronicon Villariense* and the *Annales Waverleiensis*. The Cistercians were also compilers and disseminators of legends, such as the *Collectio miraculorum* of John, prior of Clairvaux (1179), the *Liber miraculorum* of Gessuin (before 1200), and the *Exordium magnum S. Ord. Cist.* of Conrad of Eberbach (before 1221). The influence of Cistercian Eucharistic piety is also felt in the famous *Queste del Graal* (cf. P. Browe, *Die eucharistischen Wunder des Mittelalters*, Breslau 1938, pp. 22-23, 102-106). Not a few Cistercians were accomplished theologians. To foster study, many colleges were founded in France, Germany, England, and Spain. Notable is the college of St Bernard, founded in Paris around 1242 at the initiative of Abbot Stephen Lexington.
Manual labor, according to chap. 48 of the Rule of St Benedict, was held in high regard, and through it vigorous impetus was also given to social life. Inspired by Bl. Albert, the first Cistercians established in the *Statuta* that, with the bishop’s permission, laymen with beards might be received and treated as themselves, excepting the monastic life, and that laborers might also be taken on, because they knew that without their collaboration it would not be possible always to observe the precepts of the Rule. Thus, in the Middle Ages they became skilled farmers and made a notable contribution to civilization, especially in the northern regions, in Bohemia, and in Hungary. As appears from the statutes of the General Chapters, the Cistercians were excellent organizers who promoted the draining of swamps in Italy and the Netherlands, the clearing of great forests in France, Germany, and Bohemia, and even the exploitation of iron and coal mines in the Pennine Mountains (H. C. Darby, *An historical geography of England before 1800*, Cambridge 1936, pp. 243 and 257).
The harmony established among the *Opus Dei*, spiritual literature, and manual labor, as ordered by the *Consuetudines* and confirmed annually by the General Chapter, but even more the personality of St Bernard, the illustrious glory of the Order, enabled it to spread wonderfully. By the time of the death of St Stephen in 1134, there were already 80 monasteries, of which 55
In France. In Italy, the first abbey was that of Tiglieto in Liguria (18 Oct 1120). This was followed by foundations in Germany (Kamp), England (Waverley), Switzerland (Bonmont), and Spain (Morreuela). In 1132, the first monastery of Cistercian nuns was established at Tart in France, and this was followed, especially in the 13th century, by foundations in France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Spain, and Switzerland (in the latter, monasteries of that period have survived continuously to this day). The Cistercian nuns lived according to the same *Consuetudines* as the monks, including enclosure, which, especially under the influence of the Poor Clares, was altered from manual labor to papal enclosure, although internally it was always considered the enclosure of the Order. The nuns do not form a Second Order but belong to the same Order as the monks, with exemption from the authority of the diocesan bishop, approval by the Supreme Pontiff, and acceptance or incorporation into the Order by the General Chapter. There were more than 1,000 monasteries where life flourished in the spirit and manner of the Cistercians, even if not all were incorporated into the Order. They placed the greatest care on interior and mystical life, especially in Germany, Belgium, and Holland. The abbesses also held General Chapters at Tart, Tulembras, Las Huelgas near Burgos, and Vallebona (Lerida), but these gatherings were not General Chapters in the strict sense, rather assemblies of regional abbesses. Many Cistercian monks and nuns attained the heights of holiness, and 1215 religious died in a reputation for sanctity or lived exemplary lives.
The year before the death of St. Bernard (1152), there were 339 monasteries of monks, and by the end of the Middle Ages, about 750, spread across all European countries.
The Church was greatly indebted not only to St. Bernard but also to many monks and lay brothers: three popes—Eugenius III (formerly abbot of Tre Fontane), Celestine IV, and Benedict XII (abbot of Fontfroid in France)—44 cardinals, including Giacomo da Pecorara (1244) and Giovanni Bona (1647), a distinguished writer on ascetics and liturgy; and about 580 bishops (cf. G. Willi, *Cist. Päpste, Kardinale u. Bischofe*, in *Cist. Chron.*, 23 [1911], pp. 255 ff.). Many lay brothers regularly served the Roman Curia as seal-makers. Abbots and monks also traveled among Muslims and Albigensians to preach the Gospel.
Many monasteries were drawn to the Order of the Cistercians by its good reputation: thus, in 1147, the General Chapter incorporated the Congregation of Savigny with 28 monasteries and that of Obazine with 3 monasteries; in 1162, the monastery of Dalon with its dependencies. Some military orders also joined the Order, such as that of Calatrava in Spain.
For services rendered to the Church, the Order received many privileges. From Innocent III, it obtained exemption from tithes, later modified by Adrian IV, Alexander III, and the Fourth Lateran Council. Lucius III granted the privilege of exemption, and Innocent VIII (with the bull *Expositi tuae devotionis*, though some question its authenticity) empowered the Abbot General to confer the subdiaconate and diaconate, consecrate chalices and patens, and bless abbots (cf. T. Abele, *Die Erteilung der Subdiakonats- und Diakonatsweihe durch den Abt von Cîteaux und die Primaräte*, in *Cist. Chron.*, 37 [1925], pp. 169 ff.).
The 12th and 13th centuries were the golden age of the Order, but with such a large number of monasteries and religious, weaknesses and errors were inevitable. In the 12th century, some monasteries acquired, contrary to the statutes of Blessed Alberic, the right to tithes, and since their lands were too extensive to be worked directly, they leased part of them for rents, which seriously damaged observance of the Rule and customs. With the abandonment of manual labor, the harmony between the Divine Office and spiritual reading was broken. In many monasteries, study was neglected, and the Office was prolonged, leading to other innovations contrary to the Order’s statutes. Nevertheless, some monasteries remained faithful to the teaching of the Fathers for a long time, such as that of St. Urban in the 16th century. Through the intervention of the Roman pontiffs and the efforts of the General Chapters, many attempts were made over the centuries to restore discipline, as evidenced by the constitution of Clement IV, *Parvus fons* (1196), a commentary on the *Charta caritatis*; that of Benedict XII, *Fulgens sicut stella* (12 July 1335), on the reform of the Order; the decrees of the General Chapter of 1601 for the reform of the Order and its members; and the constitution of Alexander VII (19 April 1666) for a general reform of the Order and to resolve disputes between strict and common observance (its text still forms the basis of the statutes of the Augstine Congregation).
To revive the spirit of the Fathers, some monasteries adopted other means, including the formation of Congregations. Some remained closely united to the motherhouse of Cîteaux, while others separated. The first was the General Congregation of the reformer Martín de Vargas in 1425 (Congregation of Mount Sion or of Regular Observance in Spain), followed by the Congregation of St. Bernard in Italy (the Lombard-Tuscan of 1497), the Lusitanian of 1567, and the Feuillant founded by Jean de la Barrière in 1589. These, along with the Aragonese, Roman (1613), and Calabro-Lucanian (1633) Congregations, introduced customs foreign to the Order, while the Upper German Congregation (1595) remained faithful to the principles and to the Abbot of Cîteaux. Thus, the Order, once so united and glorious, became divided, though the spirit of the Fathers lived on in many monasteries with excellent results. In the 18th century, the way of life of the Cistercians was still identical to that of the reformed Cistercians, except for perpetual silence, complete abstinence, and manual labor. Various circumstances contributed to this decline of the Order, such as in France the Hundred Years’ War (1339–1453), plagues, and the notorious commendatory system, which, especially in French and Italian monasteries where only a few religious could be supported, led to a sharp decline in regular observance and the Order’s customs. Many abbots failed to attend the General Chapter, which could no longer be held regularly; to this were added the persecutions of the Hussites in Bohemia, Silesia, and Austria. Through the force and violence of laypeople, but also due to the weakness of the monks, the Protestant Reformation extinguished Cistercian life in all monasteries of England, Scotland, Scandinavia, Holland, Hungary, and in many of Germany and Switzerland. In Austria, many abbeys were closed by Joseph II; in France and Belgium, suppression was universal at the hands of the Revolution. In 1803, with the end of the Holy Roman Empire, many monasteries were suppressed, except for some of nuns; in 1810, all abbeys in Prussia, Poland, and Silesia; between 1830 and 1835, all in Portugal and Spain; and between 1841 and 1848, all in Switzerland. Some monasteries survived by emigrating, such as the Cistercians of Strict Observance (Trappists). The convent of St. Bernard at Scaldis and that of Stella Maris at Wettingen were also able to survive.
At present, the Order consists of 8 Congregations: 1) Sacred Heart of Jesus (Austria); 2) Augstine (Mehrerau, formerly Helvetio-Germanic); 3) Italic; 4) Belgian; 5) Gallic; 6) Hungarian; 7) Purest Heart of Mary in Bohemia; 8) Casamari. Some monasteries remain independent.
It belongs to no Congregation. In 63 monasteries there live today 1,500 religious.
CONGREGAZIONE CISTERCIENSE DI CASAMARI:
CONGREGAZIONE CISTERCIENSE D'ITALIA. — Alexander VI, in 1497, decreed the union of the Cistercian monasteries of northern Italy into a Congregation, called S. Bernardo; but it only became effective through a further intervention by Julius II (1501). It was also known as the Lombard Congregation. Urban VIII, in 1631, approved its statutes, and the presiding abbot of the Congregation held the first place in the General Chapter of Cîteaux, after the four primary abbots. Among the monasteries belonging to this Congregation were, among others, the famous Tre Fontane in Rome, and, from 1560 onwards, S. Croce in Gerusalemme. The seat of the presiding abbot was at Chiaravalle della Marche.
Meanwhile, the General Chapter of the Order in 1613 decreed the union of the Cistercian monasteries in central Italy and the Kingdom of Naples, which had not joined the Lombard Congregation, and Gregory XV in 1623 made this decision effective; thus arose the Roman Congregation.
Finally, Urban VIII in 1632, in accordance with a decision of the General Chapter of the Order in 1605, gave effect to the union of the Cistercian monasteries of Calabria and Lucania, establishing the Congregation of the Madonna of Calabria, or of Flori, or Florense.
Meanwhile, a particular Cistercian reform began in France through the efforts of John de la Barrière, with its seat at the abbey of N.-D. de Feuillant. It was approved by Sixtus V in 1586 and by Clement VIII in 1592 and erected into a Congregation. The founder obtained a site in Rome near the Terme Diocleziane (1598), where the church of S. Bernardo alle Terme was later built. Urban VIII, in 1630, divided this new Congregation into two independent branches: the Cistercians of Notre-Dame-de-Feuillant in France and the Reformed of S. Bernardo in Italy (43 monasteries), known to the people as “Bernardoni,” who had in Rome, besides the church of S. Bernardo, the general procuratorship at S. Vito and the church of S. Pudenziana.
The French Revolution and the ensuing severe political upheavals caused the almost complete ruin of the Lombard Congregation and led to the closure of many other monasteries. For this reason, Pius VII, in 1802, united the surviving Italian houses with the Roman Congregation, today called the Cistercian Congregation of Italy, dedicated to S. Bernardo. The seat of the presiding abbot is at S. Croce in Gerusalemme.
CISTERCIAN ARCHITECTURE — The sense of austerity that underlies the Cistercian reform is profoundly reflected in the appearance of the churches built by the Order. The rules indeed contain numerous norms in this regard: every sculptural decoration, every symbolic representation was to be banished, vertical development was limited, and the entire construction was marked by the greatest economy; even the bells were reduced in number and size. The coincidence of the early developments of Gothic architecture in France was a decisive factor for the architecture of the new churches, which drew from it constructive arrangements such as the pointed arch adopted from the very beginning at Cîteaux. More particularly, the monks adhered to the Burgundian style as being simpler and less adorned, linking the general arrangement to ancient Benedictine models, beginning with S. Gallo.
The first Cistercian churches therefore display great simplicity in their Latin-cross or more often Egyptian-cross plan, with three naves covered by ribbed vaults supported by compound piers, the half-columns on the side of the central nave continuing up to the imposts of the vaults themselves. At the intersection of the nave and the transept rises the central tower, serving as a bell tower to allow the officiating monks to ring the bells, the choir being situated in front of the high altar. The apse generally has a square plan.
To the left of the church and in direct communication with it stands the great cloister, which serves as the circulation space connecting all the conventual buildings: chapter house, refectory, study rooms, etc.
This scheme is followed by Chiaravalle Milanese, Fossanova, S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane, and others.
Given the great diffusion of the Cistercian reform, the Cistercians influenced all European religious architecture of the 12th century, not only as disseminators of forms in the countries bordering their original territory but also in those beyond the Channel and even in Scandinavia.
At the beginning of the 13th century, various architectural currents began to emerge within the Order itself, as local styles were superimposed on traditional forms, sometimes resulting in further structural simplifications, as in southern Lazio.
In Burgundy, however, the monks followed the developments of Gothic stylistic evolution not only in the constructive forms, which they indeed perfected with technical skill, but also in decorative motifs, which they partly accepted. A new wave of Gothic spread thus into northern and central Italy, as attested by the abbatial churches of S. Galgano and S. Martino al Cimino, where a greater sense of verticality is combined with a more refined decorative sensibility, and that of S. Andrea in Vercelli, which also features flying buttresses.
Cistercians of the Strict Observance – Abbot Armand-Jean Le Bouthillier de Rancé. Painting by Hyacinthe Rigaud – Abbey of Notre-Dame de la Trappe.