Germany

GERMANIA - Localities with ancient Christian monuments.

148). — Bonn: beneath the floor of the Romanesque crypt of the basilica of SS. Cassius and Florentius, today S. Martin, a Christian cemetery area was discovered in 1928 near the ancient Roman castrum of the 4th century and a cemetery church of the 4th-5th century (G. P. Kirsch, in Riv. di arch. crist., 9 [1932], pp. 151-58. For the Christian inscriptions found in Bonn, V. F. X. Kraus, op. cit., p. 137, n. 282; p. 138, n. 284). — Boppard (Baudobrica): several Christian funerary inscriptions are known, among them one of a «famulus Dei» (F. X. Kraus, op. cit., p. 131, n. 267) and another of a «Nonnus presbyter» (id., op. cit., p. 133, n. 272). — Coblenz (Confluentes): Christian funerary inscription on a limestone slab belonging to a «Leuradus lector» (id., op. cit., p. 130, n. 265). — Cologne (v. : Colonia Agrippina). — Gondorf: Christian funerary inscriptions (J. Klein, in Bonner Jahrbücher, 84 [1887], p. 241). — Güttingen (on Lake Constance): a Cross on gold foil, a silver fibula engraved with a horseman supporting a processional Cross, a bronze vessel with allegorical motifs, including the scene of the Baptism, and a Greek inscription were found there (G. Kraft, in Badische Fundberichte, 1 [1928], p. 267; 2 [1929], p. 21; F. Garscha and F. W. Volbach, in Germania, 17 [1933], pp. 36-37; J. Sauer, Frühchristliche Funde in Deutschland aus den letzten 25 Jahren, in Atti del III Congresso internazionale di arch. crist., Vatican City 1934, p. 179, fig. 6). — Hintschingen, on the Danube: a Cross on gold foil, a gold ring with a gold coin of Justin II, and a spur with an engraved Cross were found there (E. Wagner, in Römisch-Germanisches Korrespondenzblatt, 9 [1919], pp. 1-8; I. Sauer, op. cit., p. 177, fig. 5). — Lehmen, on the Moselle: a Christian funerary inscription (F. X. Kraus, op. cit., p. 128, n. 261). — Mainz (v. : Magontiacum). — Müngersdorf: a cemetery of the 6th-7th century A.D. with 149 graves and another with stone sarcophagi; glass and metal objects bearing pagan and Christian subjects were collected there (F. Fremersdorf, in Bullettino del Museo dell'Impero romano, 1 [1930], pp. 171-72). Particularly well known is the blue glass bowl with scenes of Noah in the ark, Moses striking the rock, Jonah thrown into the sea and at rest, and Daniel among the lions; these scenes alternate with four medallions in which F. Fremersdorf recognized the sons of Constantine: Crispus, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans (I. Sauer, op. cit., p. 176, fig. 4). Two silver spoons dating from the year 370, bearing the inscription «Deo gratias», were also found at Müngersdorf (G. Behrens, in Germania, 11 [1927], p. 148). — Neuss (Novaesium): four gilt glasses with the representation

of the apostles Peter and Paul, of Job, of s. Hippolytus, and of s. Sixtus II (F. X. Kraus, op. cit., p. 152, n. 302). – Passau (Castra Batavia): a sanctuary founded by s. Severinus, protector and apostle of the Roman provinces of Raetia and Noricum. Beneath the medieval church, remains dating from the 8th century have been discovered (H. Horman, St. Severin zu Passau, Die Kirche und ihre Baugeschichte nach neuen Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen, Passau 1935). – Pflaidt, near Andernach: a Christian inscription (F. X. Kraus, op. cit., p. 134, n. 274). – Regensburg (v. Regina Castra). – Remagen (Ricomagus): a Christian funerary inscription (F. X. Kraus, op. cit., p. 136, n. 279). – Saalburg: a small horn whistle bearing the inscription: « Annius fidelis in g'»; it concerns a soldier of the XXII Legion (H. Leclercq, s. V. in DACL, VI, I, col. 1209, fig. 5261). – Seligenstadt on the Main: basilica erected by Eginhard (v.) in honour of the relics of the Roman martyrs Marcellinus and Peter, whose ground plan has been identified as belonging to the same type as those of S. Prassede in Rome (A. Schuchert, in Riv. di arch. crist., 15 [1937], pp. 141–46). – Trier (v.). – Worms (v.). – Wiesbaden (Aquae Mattiacae): eight Christian funerary inscriptions and a stamp (pastillum aeneum) bearing the wording « Fl. Paulini g » are known (F. X. Kraus, op. cit., pp. 27–30, nn. 47–55). – Xanten (v.).

The oldest Christian architectural monument preserved on German soil is the central structure of Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen (796–805). Here one can discern the first aspects of Western art, in the medieval transformation, then beginning, of the archetypes offered by the Christian faith and ancient tradition. In place of the forms proper to ancient statics, a massive masonry structure takes shape, while the ancient corporeality of sculpture and painting is, as it were, abstracted into fleeting signs of figures.

In the Frankish-Saxon territory, the Christian basilica, oriented from west to east, developed the apse between the 8th and 9th centuries (Centula). Of Carolingian monumental painting (v. CAROLINGIAN ART), which already possessed all the thematic motifs of medieval art, only fragmentary and isolated testimonies remain in G., whereas numerous manuscripts still transmit the entire manifold richness of the miniatures: Ada school: Ada’s manuscript, around 800 (Trier); Palace school: Treasury Gospel Book, beginning of the 9th century (Vienna); Reims school: Utrecht Psalter, first half of the 9th century; S. Gallo school: Golden Psalter, second half of the 9th century. Large sculptures were not produced in this period; of great importance, however, are ivory carvings and goldsmiths’ work (Milan, S. Ambrogio: antependium; the binding of the Codex aureus of s. Emmeram in Regensburg, Munich, etc.).

Carolingian art constitutes the foundation of German art, which can properly be said to begin only after the second half of the 10th century, with Ottonian art. It is an eminently aristocratic art, determined by the personalities who founded and supported the Roman-German Empire. In relation to ancient classical art, it is much more independent than Carolingian art. Its imposing monumentality, its harmonious

Their figurative power and spiritual expressiveness embodied the profound religiosity and, at the same time, the earthly confidence of this period. In the field of architecture, structures now become clearer, while the unity of the masses emphasizes the harmony of spaces and walls. The architectural system is linked to schematic principles, such as the double-ended choir and the doubling of the transepts, while the unified character of the entire structure is accentuated by the bell towers (Gernrode, S. Ciriaco, built in 961; Cologne, S. Pantaleone with monumental apse, consecrated in 980; Hildesheim, S. Michele, basilica with two choirs and two naves, 1000–33; Cologne, S. Maria in Campidoglio, 1049; Limburg on the Ardt, western façade with two bell towers, between 1025 and 1045).

The various schools of Ottonian miniature painting differ in content and style: Reichenau (Codex of Egbert, around 980 [Trier], Gospel Book of Otto III [Munich], Bamberg Apocalypse, beginning of the 11th century); Trier; Echternach (Codex aureus Epternacensis, around 1020 [Coburg]); Cologne (Codex of Hilda, beginning of the 11th century [Darmstadt]); Regensburg (Codex of Uta, 1002–25 [Munich]). The Gerokreuz of Cologne Cathedral is one of the earliest German documents of great plastic art (around 970). The first German cycle of sculpted figures, on the other hand, is to be admired on Bernward’s two bronze portals in Hildesheim Cathedral (completed in 1015). Goldsmiths’ art, in the clarity and delicacy of its figurative representation, detaches itself from the dazzling variety of the Carolingian period (the portable altar of Andrea, 975–93 [Trier], the Basel antependium, 1002–24 [Paris], the ornaments of the Empress Gisela, beginning of the 11th century, the bindings of the great Reichenau manuscripts, preserved in Munich).

From the middle of the 11th century, Romanesque art proper, in its solidity of form, originality of content, and strength of structural cohesion, differentiates itself from that of the Ottonians. Thus in the Hirsau architectural school. Thus in the imperial cathedrals of Mainz and Speyer (around 1082 transformed into a basilica with arches, where rib vaults in the central nave made their first appearance in G., connected with a more solid structure of the nave walls and of the entire exterior construction). Thus in the church of the abbey of Maria Laach (1092–1156). In sculpture, the impetuous expressive force of the period around 1000 is lost to the advantage of an archaically severe monumentality (cf. the Golden Madonna of Essen, from the end of the 10th century, with the Madonna of Bishop Imad from 1060 [Paderborn]). In the second half of the 11th century, the first sculpture with an architectural function appears in niches (atrium of S. Emmeram, Regensburg, 1048–64). In the 12th century, a strong sculptural feeling is expressed in the modelling of bodily forms (tomb of Rudolf of Swabia, d. 1080 [Merseburg]; tomb of Friedrich von Wettin, d. 1152 [Magdeburg]).

From the middle of the 12th century, the new sense of fulfilment and joy characteristic of the age of the Staufers, the age of heroic epic and knightly Minnesänger, is reflected in an architecture of robust features and pleasing ornamentation (Schwarzrheindorf, double chapel, consecrated in 1151; Cologne, SS. Apostoli, construction enlarged in the eastern section, after 1192; Worms, cathedral, late 12th–early 13th century; Strasbourg, Münster, Ostbau, after 1176; Bamberg Cathedral, 1185–1237; Limburg a. d. Lahn, collegiate church, consecrated in 1235). Pleasing naturalness and a wholly inward expressive capacity are evident in painting and sculpture: thus in the frescoes of the choir at Prüfening near Regensburg, around 1170. Thus in representations of sacred subjects, such as those in Cologne, in S. Gereone, in the Baptistery Chapel. Thus in the schools of miniature painting of Regensburg (Lode della s. Croce, 1170–85 [Munich]), in the Bavarian monastic school (Libro mattutino dell’abate Corrado di Scheyern, beginning of the 13th century [Munich]), in that of the Upper Rhine (Hortus deliciarum di Herrad di Landsberg, ca. 1170), in the other of the Middle Rhine (Liber Scivias di s. Ildegarda di Bingen from the beginning of the second half of the 12th century [Wiesbaden]), and in that of Thüringen (Psalter of Landgrave Hermann, 1211–13 [Stuttgart]). In the field

(from P. Weber, Der Domschatz zu Trier, Cologne 1958, pl. 3)
GERMANIA – Detail of the portable altar of S. Andrea, commissioned by Archbishop Egbert (975–93). Merovingian fibula with a gold coin of Justinian – Treviri, Cathedral.

(courtesy of Dr L. von Wickens)
GERMANIA - Cloister of the former convent of St. Emmeram (13th century) - Regensburg.

In sculpture, particular mention should be made of the lectern at Freudenstadt, from around 1150; at Hildesheim, in St. Michael’s, the reliefs of the choir stalls, from around 1186; at Halberstadt, in the Liebfrauenkirche, the group of the Triumph of the Cross, from around 1220. At Hildesheim Cathedral, the bronze baptismal font, from around 1213–25. The sculptures of Strasbourg Cathedral, from around 1230 (Flights of Angels, Church, Synagogue, Death and Coronation of Mary), and those of Bamberg Cathedral, 1235–40 (the choir stalls of St. George, Mary and Elizabeth, Adam’s Door, the Princes’ Portal, Knights), as well as the later works of the Master of Naumburg, from around 1235–60 (the Bassenheim Knights, types from Mainz and Naumburg, and figures of founders). Also characteristic is the flourishing of the goldsmith’s art, in which field the work of great masters is recalled, such as Roger of Helmarshausen (c. 1100), Gilbert of Cologne (beginning of the second half of the 12th century), Wilbert of Aachen (1160–65), the author of the shrine of Aribert, Cologne (around 1170), and Nicholas of Verdun (altar of Klosterneuburg, 1181), as well as the author of the Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral (before 1200–30).

Gothic art in G. began almost a century after its appearance in its French homeland. It became established there as chivalry was declining, when the emerging urban bourgeoisie received its inheritance.

Trier, Liebfrauenkirche (1242–53): central construction with a basilical plan. Marburg, Church of St. Elizabeth (1235–83): of the Hallenkirche type, with a trefoil-shaped choir. Strasbourg, Cathedral: from the middle of the 13th century. New construction of the longitudinal part according to the model of St-Denis; the western façade, designed with two bell towers, from 1276. Cologne, Cathedral: choir (1248–1322). Regensburg, Dominican church, second half of the 13th century. Soest, St. Mary in the Meadow, founded in 1343: atrium supported by four columns. Peter Parler von Gmünd, from 1352 architect of St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague (choir), the last great cathedral. Hans Stethaimer of Burghausen, around 1360–1432: numerous Hallenbauten in Bavaria (e.g., St. Martin in Landshut). Amberg, St. Martin (1421, 1421–83): construction of porches whose colonnades converge toward the interior. Annaberg, Church of St. Anne (1499–1520): Hallenkirche in which neither longitudinal direction nor great height has any further importance. Gothic brick constructions in eastern Germany: Chorin, Cistercian church, consecrated in 1334; Lübeck, Church of St. Mary, 13th–14th century; Danzig, Church of St. Mary, mid-14th century, end of the 15th.

In sculpture, beginning at the end of the 13th century, figures increasingly lose their static quality and (mystical) corporeality and come to assume a rhythmic, elongated line, stripped of all heaviness. Strasbourg, Cathedral: prophets of the west portal, around 1290. Cologne, Cathedral choir, statues, around 1322. Freiburg, Cathedral:

Holy Sepulchre, around 1330. Oberwesel, Collegiate Church: winged altar, around 1330–40 (one of the oldest documented altars of this form, so characteristic of Germany), Bamberg, Cathedral: tomb of Archbishop Frederick of Hohenlohe (d. 1352). Groups of Christ and John—the oldest date from 1300—which, like representations of the Pietà, arose from mystical thought. Toward the middle of the century, agile and slender figures gave way to more pronounced and stocky figures, which sometimes once again convey a sense of heavy corporeality (Gmünd, Church of the Holy Cross: Prophets and wise and foolish virgins, in the choir, around 1350. Works of Parler’s workshop in Cologne, Prague, and Nuremberg. Klaus Sluter, in the service of Philip the Bold from 1385, active in Dijon). The sculpture of the “Soft Style” at the beginning of the 15th century is characterized by small dimensions and an uninterrupted flow of lines, by vagueness and gracefulness of expression. “Beautiful Madonnas” (e.g., those of Krumau in Vienna). Mainz, Cathedral: sculpture of the “Portal of

Remembrance,” around 1410. Limburg, Pietà of Dernbach, around 1400. Münster, Pietà of Unna, around 1420. Munich, Madonna of Secon, around 1430 (Hans Multscher, 1400–67, Ulm). German sculpture of the Late Gothic reaches a culmination in the period from 1460 to 1520 (Nikolaus Gerhaert of Leiden, 1463–73, probably in Trier, Strasbourg, and Wiener-Neustadt. Jörg Syrkin, 1425–93, Ulm. Michael Pacher, around 1435/40–98, Austria. Erasmus Grasser, around 1450–1518, Munich. Gregor Erhart in Ulm and Augsburg. Bernt Notke, around 1435/40–1509, in Lübeck. Veit Stoss, around 1445–1533, Nuremberg, Krakow, etc. Tilman Riemenschneider, around 1460–1531, Franco-

(courtesy of Dr. L. von Wickens)
GERMANY — Interior of the Church of Maria S.ma, founded in 1425 — Ingolstadt.

(photo: State Museums, Berlin)
GERMANIA - Altarpiece: Christ before Caffa. The Crucifixion. The Maries at the Sepulchre. Westphalian art (beginning of the 1200s) - Berlin, Museum.

nia. Peter Vischer the Elder, around 1460-1520: bronze founder, of Nuremberg. Hans Leinberger, around 1480/85-1531, Landshut. Meister Hl: High altar of Breisach, 1523-26).

Panel painting, which in the 13th century still appeared only in isolated manifestations, acquired great importance in the 14th century, and the influences of French painting (miniature) and Italian painting (Giotto and the Sienese: reverse of the Klosterneuburg altarpiece, 1324-39) became perceptible. The Cologne school, the Bohemian school (altarpieces of Hohenfurth, around 1340, and Wittingau, around 1380-90). Meister Bertram of Minden, probably 1367-1415. Painters of the “soft style” were Konrad of Soest and Meister Franke in Hamburg: his last disciples were Lukas Moser with the Tiefenbronn altarpiece (1431) and Stefano Lochner in Cologne. Konrad Witz, together with Hans Multscher a representative of the new realism from 1430 onward, painted in the Geneva altarpiece of 1444 the first image of a genuinely existing landscape. Martin Schongauer of Colmar deserves particular mention for the art of printmaking, which developed from 1440 onward. The Master of the Life of Mary, around 1470-80, Cologne. Michael Pacher. Bernard Strigel, around 1460-1528, in Ulm. Hans Holbein the Elder, around 1465-1524, Augsburg. Hans Baldung, born near Grien, 1483/84-1545, in the Upper Rhine region. Lukas Cranach, 1472-1553, and Albrecht Dürer, 1471-1528, propagator of Italian art beyond the Alps.

The 16th century and the first decades of the 17th were characterized by the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation. Alongside religious architecture, secular architecture also assumed particular importance. Thus, alongside the religious representations of sculpture and painting, wholly earthly and mythological ones now appeared. Augsburg, Fugger Chapel, 1509-18: the first construction in G. derived from the Italian Renaissance. Munich, Jesuit church of St Michael, 1583-97: based on the Gesù in Rome, but in the tradition of the German pillar churches of the late Gothic period; the impressive architecture of the German churches of the Counter-Reformation. Cologne, Jesuit church (St Mary the Assumption, 1618-27): the principal example of the late Gothic style cultivated by the western German Jesuits. Flourishing of small-scale sculpture in bronze, lead, carved wood, and stone. Konrad Meit of Worms, around 1480-1550. Peter Floetner, around 1490-1546, Nuremberg. Hans Schwarz, medallist, Augsburg. Hans Krumper, around 1570-1634: bronze sculptures at the Munich court. Jörg Zuern: High altar of Überlingen, 1613-19 (enlargement of the narrow Gothic altarpiece). Ludwig Münstermann, around 1575-1638: representative of an expressive religious Mannerism. In painting, portraiture flourished. The eminent master of the

first half of the century was Hans Holbein the Younger (Augsburg 1497-98, London 1541). The German creator of ideal landscapes, which he often enlivened with small ornamental religious figures, was Adam Elsheimer of Frankfurt (1578-1610).

The Baroque age, and especially the Rococo, once again embraced in G. all the creative forces in a grandiose display. In the 18th century, there was again a fusion of all the arts, as in the medieval workshop, since ceiling painting, altars and sculpture, carving, and stucco work served only to complete the architect’s work. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656-1723), Lukas von Hildebrandt (Vienna, 1668-1745), Christoph Dientzenhofer (Prague, 1689-1751), the Vorarlberg architectural school with Caspar Mosbrugger, Franz Beer, and Peter Thumb. In Bavaria: Cosmas Damian (1686-1739) and Egid Quirin Asam (1692-1750); Dominikus Zimmermann (1685-1766); Johann Michel Fischer (1691-1766), Johann Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753), Franz Baehr: Frauenkirche in Dresden (1726-38, Protestant central-plan building with galleries). In sculpture and painting, too, the center of gravity lay in southern G. Johann Meinrad Guggenbichler (Salzkammergut, 1649-1723), Balthasar Permoser (1651-1733), Georg Raphael Donner (Vienna, 1693-1741), Paul Eggel (Mannheim, 1691-1752), Egid Quirin Asam, Johann Baptist Straub (Munich, 1704-84), Ignaz Günther (Munich 1725-1775), Joseph Anton Feuchtmayer (Lake Constance, 1696-1770). Religious painting of the 17th century culminated in the pathetic visions of the martyrs and the sacred representations of the Silesian Michael Willmann (1630-1706). In the 18th century, ceiling painting triumphed: Cosmas Damian Asam, Franz Anton Maulbertsch (1724-96, Austria).

Romanticism attempted to express with sentimental enthusiasm its longing for renewal and purity in style by turning toward the old masters. In 1824-28, Karl Friedrich Schinkel built the Werdersche Kirche in Berlin in Gothic forms. The Nazarenes (Karl Friedrich Overbeck, Peter von Cornelius, Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld) sought to renew religious painting by taking inspiration from Raffaello. Only Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840), however, succeeded in creating something new with his landscapes: allegories filled with religious feeling. The 19th century made no real contribution in the field of Christian art. In the contemporary age, architects such as Hans Bartning and Dominikus Boehm have concerned themselves with the new Christian architecture. The sculptors Ernst Barlach and Gerhard Marcks, and the painter Emil Nolde, have represented the ancient Christian motifs in the spirit of the 20th century.

Btm.: A. Goldschmidt, Die Elfenbeinskalpturen aus der Zeit der Karolinger und der sächsischen Kaiser, 4 vols., Berlino

(photograph: National Museum, Nuremberg)
GERMANIA - The Most Holy Mary and St. Elisabetta spinning. At their feet Jesus and St. Giovanni. School of Norimberga (ca. 1400), Norimberga, Museo nazionale.

1914; A. Feulner, Bayerisches Rokoko, Monaco 1920; M. Hautmann, Geschichte der kirchlichen Baukunst in Bayern, Franken und Schwaben 1559-1780, there 1921; J. Braun, Meisterwerke der deutschen Goldschmiedekunst der vorgotischen Zeit, 2 vols., there 1922; A. Haupt, Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland, Berlino-Neubabelsberg 1923; H. Beenken, Romanische Shulptur in Deutschland, Lipsia 1924; W. Pinder, Die deutsche Plastik vom Ausgang des Mittelalters bis zum Ende der Renaissance, 2 vols., Wildpark-Potsdam 1924-29; C. Glaser, Die altdeutsche Malerei, Monaco 1924; H. Hildebrandt, Die Kunst des 19. und 20. Jahrh., Wildpark-Potsdam 1924; P. Frankl, Die Frühmittelalterliche und romanische Baukunst, there 1926; A. Feulner, Deutsche Plastik des 17. Jahrh., Monaco 1926; S. Meller, Die deutschen Bronzestatuetten der Renaissance, there 1926; M. Sauerlandt, Die deutsche Plastik des 18. Jahrh., Monaco 1926; E. F. Bange, Die Kleinplastik der deutschen Renaissance in Holz und Stein, Monaco 1928; C. Einstein, Die Kunst des 20. Jahrh., 3rd ed., Berlino 1929; G. Dehio, Geschichte der deutschen Kunst, 8 vols., 4th ed., there 1930-34; E. Gall, Karolingische und ottonische Kirchen, Burg bei Magdeburg 1930; A. Boeckler, Abendländische Miniaturen bis zum Ausgang der romanischen Zeit, Berlino-Lipsia 1930; J. Baum, Malerei und Plastik des Mittelalters in Deutschland, Frankreich und Italien, Wildpark-Potsdam 1930; C. H. Clasen, Die gotische Baukunst, there 1930; A. Stange, Deutsche Malerei der Gotik, 3 vols., Berlino-Lipsia 1934-38; W. Pinder, Deutscher Barock, Die grossen Baumeister des 18. Jahrh., Königstein i. T. 1938; R. Benz-A. V. Schneider, Die Kunst der deutschen Romantik, Monaco 1939; H. Jantzen, Deutsche Plastik des 13. Jahrh., there 1941; O. Fischer, Geschichte der deutschen Malerei, Monaco 1942; H. Jantzen, Ottonische Kunst, there 1947. Leonie V. Wilckens

VII. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.

With Hitlerian National Socialism defeated, the school reform of Ernst Krieck, Alfred Baemler, and Rosenberg, which was based on Gleichhaltung and Gleichschaltung, also fell. From that day onward, the German school has sought to orient itself toward democracy and to consolidate itself. The path is difficult because German pedagogues ready to undertake a new reform of German school life on their own are lacking. Any advice or imposition in the educational field has encountered, since 1945, the distrust not only of intellectuals but also of the pupils’ parents themselves. Political rhetoric discredits, in the individual «Länder», even the best reform projects proposed by non-German authorities. The reform projects of the governments of the individual «Länder», on the other hand, are inspired by the German school reforms that followed one another from 1871 until Hitler’s accession. Each «Land» is an entity in itself, and the German people’s aspiration to unity thus remains unsatisfied. Nor are ideas concerning the role of the Church, religion, and the family in education clear, despite the respect that is now shown in Western G. for arts. 4-9 of the Concordat concluded between the Church and the State in 1925. The spirit of the Weimar Republic (1918-33), on the other hand, is alive among the politicians of present-day G. As then, so too today, the conservative current fights for militarily disciplined nationalist individualism and finds its strongholds both in the universities and in former military circles. The other political currents, including a portion of the members of the Catholic Party, instead seek new paths and are not satisfied with a mere renewal of the Weimar school reform associated with the names of Wilhelm Dilthey, Eduard Spranger, Theodor Litt, C. H. Becker, and Hans Richert. The reform to which they aspire must be based on the democratic teacher who has never belonged to Nazism. The democratic courses established for Nazi teachers did not meet their expectations; consequently, a new type of higher pedagogical school was established. There the future teacher must learn the art of education, in order to develop the intellectual capacities of pupils organically and to guide young people, in the fear of God, toward spiritual, moral, and political maturity.

Religious instruction is regulated by the Concordat of 1925, arts. 4-9, and is compulsory in all lower schools and optional in higher schools. Teachers of theology and all those responsible for the spiritual life of pupils are appointed in agreement with the Church under the law of 1949, § 12. School education (law of 1948) is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age and is free of charge.

The types of school are as follows: kindergartens, lower and upper elementary schools, post-elementary schools, middle schools, licei-ginnasi, technical schools,

agricultural schools, higher popular institutes, and universities. The historic Universities are the following: Altdorf-Norimberga (1575), Bamberga (1648), Berlino (1809), Bonn (1777), Breslavia (1702), Colonia (1388), Dillingen-Augsburg (1554), Duisburg (1655), Erfurt (1379), Erlangen (1743), Francoforte sull'Odra (1506), Friburgo in Br. (1455), Fulda (1734), Giessen (1607), Gottinga (1737), Greifswald (1456), Halle (1694), Heidelberg (1385), Helmstaedt (1571), Herborn (1584), Jena (1558), Ingolstadt (1459), Marburg (1527), Kiel (1665), Königsberg (1544), Landshut (1802), Lipsia (1409), Monaco (1472), Münster (1631), Osnabrück (1630), Paderborn (1615), Rinteln (1621), Rostock (1419), Stoccarda (1775), Tubinga (1477), Wittenberg (1502), Würzburg (1582). There are also 10 polytechnic institutes, 2 higher schools of veterinary medicine, 3 higher schools of agriculture, 3 higher schools of forestry, 5 commercial academies, 8 pedagogical academies, 2 medical academies, 14 academies of music and fine arts, and 10 academies of music.

The education of the Catholic clergy takes place in 21 colleges, 5 seminary-colleges, 30 minor seminaries, and 35 major seminaries. - Vedi tavv. VIII-XII.