CZECHOSLOVAKIA. —
1. Geography
The Czechoslovak State was born in October 1918 from the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and was organized as a unitary, representative republic composed of the following lands: Bohemia (52,062 sq. km.) with 6,700,000 inhabitants, Moravia (22,221 sq. km.) and Silesia (4,271 sq. km.) with 3,300,000 inhabitants, formerly Austrian territories; Slovakia (49,006 sq. km.) with 3,000,000 inhabitants and Carpathian Ruthenia (also called Subcarpathian Russia, 12,617 sq. km.) with 600,000 inhabitants, belonging to the Hungarian Crown; and a small strip of Upper German Silesia (316 sq. km.). When its independence was proclaimed, Czechoslovakia thus covered 140,493 sq. km. with 13,600,000 inhabitants, which by early 1938 had risen to 14,700,000, making it, without doubt, the economically most stable and viable of all the new States formed from the collapse of the Dual Monarchy.The German defeat in the Second World War led, in May 1945, to the reconstitution of the Czechoslovak State within the frontiers of 1937; but in July of the same year the U.S.S.R., whose troops occupied the country, annexed Carpathian Ruthenia (12,617 sq. km. with 725,000 inhabitants) to the Ukraine, so that the Republic of Czechoslovakia now extends over 127,765 sq. km. with 13,000,000 inhabitants. The ethnic composition of the State has been profoundly altered as a result of war losses and the expulsion of the Germans, though fully reliable figures are not yet available in this regard.
The geographical structure of the Czechoslovak State highlights its transitional character between the highly industrialized countries of Central Europe and those still typically agricultural in Eastern Europe. The great variety of natural and historical conditions within its borders—agriculture engages only 36% of the population in Bohemia, while industry is far less developed and of a quite different character (artisan-based) in Moravia and Silesia, and Slovakia is an outright agricultural country—ensures a certain economic stability, as evidenced by the fact that, scarcely had the storm of war passed, equilibrium was rapidly restored and the economic balance sheet became active once more. It is not, however, easy to foresee what consequences may arise from the insertion of the Czechoslovak State into the Soviet political-economic system.
Within the new frontiers, Czechoslovakia retains, in substance, its excellent industrial equipment, which, in a Europe thrown into turmoil, benefits from the elimination of German competition. Population density (105 inhabitants per sq. km. in 1946) has increased compared to the pre-war period; the capital, Prague, has become a metropolis (nearly one million inhabitants at the same date), and four urban centers now exceed 100,000 inhabitants: Brno (267,000) the Moravian capital, Moravská Ostrava (176,000), Bratislava (or Pressburg, 138,000), formerly capital of the independent Slovak State, and Plzeň in Bohemia.
The population is overwhelmingly Catholic of the Latin rite (more than two-thirds). The other Christian churches account for 15%, Jews 2.6%, and the unaffiliated 5.2%. These figures date from before the Second World War.
Brno. E. Proschwitzer, *Geographie der Tschechoslowakei*, Vienna-Prague 1922; H. Hassinger, *Die Tschechoslowakei*, Vienna 1923; B. von d. Decken, *Die Wirtschaft in der Tschechoslowakei*, Munich-Leipzig 1928; F. Macherschek, *Die Tschechoslowakei*, Berlin 1928; L. Graux, *La Tchécoslovaquie économique*, Paris 1930; C. Holland, *Czechoslovakia: the Land and the People*, London 1931; A. Fichelle, *La Tchécoslovaquie*, Paris 1931; F. Weil, *Tschechoslowakei*, Gotha 1933.
Giuseppe Caraci
II. History
The history of Czechoslovakia begins on 28 October 1918, when civil and military authority was assumed by the “National Committee.” From the defeat of the Central Powers and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Czechoslovak Republic had emerged. Numerous Czechoslovak “legionaries” had fought alongside the Entente forces, and the new State thus found itself among the victors.The new State had to overcome at the outset not a few resistances, constituted by the large German and Magyar minorities within its borders; even among the Slovak population opposition emerged, partly due to autonomist tendencies and partly to political and religious motives. Strong social unrest arose from the peculiar post-war situation and from economic difficulties connected with the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In short, however, the democratic regime grew stronger. Communist extremism abated, and even the important allogeneic minorities were, at least in part, integrated into the political life of the State, participating in government.
Masaryk and Beneš were the most prominent figures in Czechoslovak political life. The Czech national movement was, however, in certain of its currents, imbued with anti-Catholic tendencies: in this attitude Hussite traditions, historical recollections, and contemporary political impulses converged. A strong tension thus arose between the Holy See and the Czechoslovak government, following the latter’s participation in the commemorations of Hus (1925).
In a democratic climate strongly permeated by socialist reformism and secularism, Czechoslovakia, backed by the French alliance and economically prosperous thanks to the country’s considerable resources, enjoyed a long period of peace. This situation was profoundly transformed by the resurgence of German power and the rapid rise of National Socialism.
The gradual retreat of French policy in Eastern Europe was not compensated by the new Czechoslovak friendship with the U.S.S.R., which was concerned above all with its own particular problems. In the territories inhabited by the German population, violent agitation under the leadership of K. Henlein arose for annexation to the Greater Reich. In Slovakia, too, opposition to the Prague government grew sharper and more intransigent. In the autumn of 1938, following the Munich Agreement and its developments, Czechoslovakia, once a multinational State, had become a State composed solely of Czechs and Slovaks: Germany occupied almost all the territories inhabited by Germans; Hungary pushed its borders northward; and on 4 April 1939 it annexed all of Carpathian Ruthenia. Poland also annexed a piece of Silesia.
The Czechoslovakia that emerged from the Munich Agreement, however, had only a brief life. Some local incidents between Czechs and Germans served Hitler as a pretext to strike the final blow against Czechoslovakia, while pro-Nazi currents in Slovakia openly sought to create an independent Slovak State. Hitler meanwhile summoned the President of the Czechoslovak Republic, E. Hácha; the weak president was forced to “spontaneously” place the fate of the Czech people in the hands of the German Führer. German troops occupied the Czech capital on 15 March 1939. At the same time, Slovakia, under the leadership of Tiso, Tuka, and Mach, became an independent State under German protection.
Czechoslovak resistance against Nazi domination was intense; the Communists, who had remained completely passive at first, took active action after the end of German-Soviet friendship and after the German attack on Russia. As the Russians approached Czechoslovak territory, a violent insurrection broke out in Slovakia, which was, however, able to be suppressed. Under Nazi domination, harsh political and racial persecutions took place, as well as ferocious reprisals; particularly notorious was the destruction of Lidice, with almost all its inhabitants.
The Czechoslovak government expelled almost all the Germans and Hungarians living in its territory. Under the high direction of Beneš, a coalition government was formed.
Czechoslovakia — Interior of the Church of St. George (mid-11th century) — Prague.
For some time it appeared that, in both foreign and domestic policy, the Czechoslovak government might maintain itself in a certain way midway between Russia and the West. However, Russian pressure grew ever more intense and culminated in the ultimatum to Czechoslovakia not to adhere to the Marshall Plan. The communists gradually seized all the principal levers of control under the pretext of “defending democracy.” The elections of 1946 had left the communists in a clear minority (they were even resoundingly defeated in Slovakia). But in February 1948 they violently seized power; this act of force coincided roughly with the tragic death, under mysterious circumstances, of the son of Czechoslovakia’s first president, Jan Masaryk.
Once a totalitarian regime was established, opposition parties were suppressed and Czechoslovakia fully entered the political climate of Eastern Europe. A violent anti-religious campaign was unleashed against the Church. As early as 1925, the honors decreed for the legacy of Jan Hus had created difficulties between the government of the republic and the Holy See, which were later resolved in 1928 through a modus vivendi accepted by both parties (cf. AAS, 20 [1928], pp. 65-66). But now the totalitarian government not only violated the modus vivendi but went much further, with the nationalization of schools, the suppression of Catholic press, the oppression of genuine Catholic action, and the organization of a schismatic alternative. Against these and other violations of the Church’s rights, the voice of the episcopate rose in protest, especially against the not-so-veiled attempt to provoke a religious schism. The schismatic Catholic action was condemned by the Holy See on June 20, 1949 (AAS, 41 [1949]).
Czechoslovakia now has two metropolitan sees (Prague and Olomouc) and ten episcopal sees (Buda, Budějovice, Hradec Králové, Litoměřice, Brno, Neoselio, Nitra, Prešov of the Ruthenians, Scepusio, Cassovia, Rožňava). In addition, there are two apostolic administrations: one for Tirana and one for the parishes of the Diocese of Szatmár situated in Slovakia.
III. CZECH LITERATURE
The oldest Czech literary documents date from the Christian era. Under the Moravian prince Rastislav, Constantine and Methodius arrived from Byzantium, bringing Eastern customs and the Slavic liturgical language (the Bulgarian dialect of the region of Thessalonica). Constantine created the Glagolitic alphabet based on the Greek minuscule, and Methodius’ disciples, thirty years later, created the Cyrillic alphabet based on the Greek majuscule. Among the translations of liturgical books and parts of Scripture into Old Slavonic, the Kyjevské listy (so called from the place where they were found) have survived; these are Slavic translations of Latin missals. The so-called Pražské zlomky, a translation of a Greek missal, date from the 11th century (Convent of Sázava). The Czech origin of these documents is indicated by certain Bohemianisms (e.g., Czech *c* instead of Old Slavonic *št*: *noc* instead of *nošt*).
After Methodius’ death (885), his disciples were persecuted and moved to Croatia and Bulgaria. The Slavic liturgy disappeared and was preserved only in the monastery of Sázava. Later, under Western influence, Latin became not only the liturgical but also the scholarly and literary language of Bohemia. In Latin, Cosmas, dean of the Prague chapter (d. 1125), wrote his *Chronicle*, narrating events from the Tower of Babel to his own time; Cosmas was inspired by the style of Roman annalists and, like Livy, inserted invented speeches. The first attempts at a literature in Czech were the glosses on church texts and the hymn *Hospodine, pomiluj ny* (“Lord, have mercy on us”), which, according to Jakobson, dates from the 11th century, and the *Píseň Svatováclavská* (a later work addressed to the patron saint of the Czech lands).
One of the central works of Czech medieval literature is the *Alexandreis*. Following French (Walter of Châtillon) and German (Ulrich von Eschenbach) models, an unknown author composed a Czech *Alexandreis* around 1310. He portrayed Alexander as a Christian king fighting against the infidels, and his warriors as a chivalric host in the spirit of the Crusaders. Another chronicle of great interest is that of Dalimil, which reveals a patriotic impulse against the Germanization of the country attempted by the last Přemyslids.
The German element had penetrated public life and the court; even Wenceslas II wrote verse in German. The author of the chronicle (Dalimil is a pseudonym) sought to admonish the nobility of his time with examples from the past and has Czech princes deliver patriotic tirades. Despite his own distrust of foreign customs, he wrote his chronicle in verse, following German examples. Czech medieval drama also arose from church rites. The dialogues of the Gospels were performed in dramatic form. Several fragments have survived, including the drama of the Three Marys, Passion plays, and, in the secular genre, the *Mastičkář* (“The Quack”), in which a peddler offers and praises his ointments in fairground style (a parody of the huckstering of certain physicians, perhaps under French influence).
The reign of Charles IV (1346–78) marked the zenith of Bohemian Gothic culture. He founded the university (1348), promoted the arts, and cherished the “dear Czech language.” From this period come the didactic verse composition *Nová rada* (“New Counsel”) by Smil Flaška z Pardubic and the anonymous dialogue *Podkoní a žák* (“The Groom and the Scholar”). The monarch’s interest in the past spurred many annalists to work, and Charles IV himself wrote his biography in Latin. One of the first students of the University of Prague, Tomáš Štítný ze Štítného (1335–1405), wrote on religious topics not in Latin but in Czech colored by popular expressions, in an attempt to popularize Christian doctrine. His work *Řeči besední* (“Conversational Discourses”), for example, takes the form of a conversation between father and son and treats of God, the mysteries of faith, redemption, and repentance. Most of Štítný’s writings, so medieval and typically scholastic, are derived from or translated out of Latin texts. With his ethical warmth and preaching tone, he paved the way for Hus.
Jan Hus (1369–1415) wrote theological treatises in Latin that are essentially paraphrases of Wycliffe’s radical theories, but he is more important as a writer in the Czech language. He reformed orthography, took an interest in Bohemian church music, introducing it into churches, and set an example of a new written language based on the living speech of the people. After Hus’s death, the ascetic spirit of his followers assigned religious and educational tasks to literature. The Bible and moralizing writings and glosses became central interests. The Hussites, following Hus’s lead, cultivated religious song. From this period comes the chorale *Kdož jste Boží bojovníci* (“Ye Who Are Warriors of God”), usually attributed to the military leader Jan Žižka z Trocnova.
A great utopian reformer was Petr Chelčický (d. 1460), author of the *Postilla* and *Síť víry pravé* (“Net of the True Faith”). According to Chelčický, the good Christian does not fight, not even in self-defense, and rejects science as
diabolical invention. Chelčický sought a return to evangelical simplicity, opposed the union of temporal and spiritual powers, proclaimed non-resistance to evil, even condemning wars. In his thought, some have seen a foreshadowing of Tolstoyan theories. With his rural radicalism, Chelčický expressed distrust of merchants and extolled the work of the peasant.
Later, Humanism brought Bohemia back onto the European stage, freeing it from the isolation imposed by the Utraquist movement. A typical example of Bohemian Humanism was Viktorin Kornel ze Všehrd (d. 1520). During the reigns of Ferdinand I and Maximilian II (1526–1576), Václav Hájek z Libočan (d. 1558) distinguished himself by writing a chronicle with a Catholic orientation, filled with imaginary episodes and fictitious events; this book became one of the favorite readings of the Romantics. Jan Blahoslav (1523–1571) translated the New Testament, worked on grammar, and wrote the first theoretical Czech book on singing.
From the era of Rudolf II (1576–1620), the Kralická Bible must be mentioned—a learned translation in which the written language was codified in a felicitous balance between popular speech and literary models. The historian and publisher Daniel Adam z Veleslavína (d. 1599), however, wrote in a Latinate style still under the influence of Humanism.
After the Battle of the White Mountain (8 Nov. 1620), Bohemian literature entered a period of crisis. In exile, Jan Amos Komenský (Comenius, 1592–1670) lived and worked; his writings fall into two groups: religious treatises (such as *Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart*) and pedagogical works. Komenský sought to unite all human knowledge and disciplines, hitherto scattered, into an organic, encyclopedic whole, which he called *pansophia*. During the Thirty Years’ War, he dreamed of harmony among all peoples and world peace.
Among the priests who aimed to restore Bohemia to the Catholic Church were patriotic figures such as the Jesuit Bohuslav Balbín (d. 1688), a benefactor of the Czech language. Also noteworthy are other Jesuits who contributed to religious folk poetry (B. Bridel, F. Kadlinský), the homiletic works of Fabián Veselý and Leopold Fabricius, and later the new Jesuit edition of the Bible, known as the *Svatováclavská Bible* (St. Wenceslas Bible), produced by M. Šteyer, J. Konstanc, and J. Barner.
The “Renaissance” began toward the end of the 18th century, when Joseph II “opened the windows of the empire” to Enlightenment and reformist trends. The first prominent figure of the Czech Revival was Josef Dobrovský (1753–1829), philologist and patriarch of Slavic studies, author of *Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache*, *Deutschböhmisches Wörterbuch*, and *Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache und Literatur*. He wrote chiefly in German and Latin and, as a true Enlightenment figure, was skeptical about the future of the Czech language, convinced that Czech culture was merely a monument of the past, worthy of scholarly study but no longer capable of producing literature of European stature. Hence he was dubbed *Poloček* (Half-Czech) and “Germanizing Slav” by the Romantic generation, whose leader was Josef Jungmann (1773–1847). Through translations of Milton and Chateaubriand, Jungmann laid the foundations of Czech poetic language and modern prose and compiled a five-volume Czech-German dictionary.
Of the first Romantic school, Matěj Milota Zdirad Polák is remembered for his descriptive poem *Vznešenost přírody*. Ján Kollár (1793–1852) wrote *Slávy dcera* (*The Daughter of Sláva*), inspired by Dante and extending from the old Slav lands to an imagined Slav Acheron. František Ladislav Čelakovský (1799–1862), following Herder’s model, collected folk songs from all Slavic lands in three volumes and created lyrical miniatures in the style of folk song in *Ohlas písní ruských* (*Echo of Russian Songs*) and *Ohlas písní českých* (*Echo of Czech Songs*). Václav Hanka (1791–1861), together with Josef Linda (d. 1834), fabricated the grandiose “manuscripts” (*Rukopis Královédvorský* and *Zelenohorský*), attributed to remote ages (the time of Samo, the supposed defeat of the Tatars at Olomouc, etc.). A great archaeologist was the Slovak Pavel Josef Šafárik (1795–1861), who with *Slovanské starožitnosti* founded Slavic archaeology and paved the way for František Palacký (1798–1876), champion of Czech historiography, author of *Dějiny národu českého v Čechách a v Moravě* (*History of the Czech Nation in Bohemia and Moravia*), in which Enlightenment rationalism blends with Romantic enthusiasm.
Among Čelakovský’s many followers, who imitated folk song, Josef Jaroslav Langer is remembered for his satires *Bohdanecký rukopis* (*The Manuscript of Bohdaneč*) and *Den v Kocourkové* (*A Day in Kocourkov*), which mock provincial life and customs.
Among Catholics of the Revival period, notable figures include F. J. Vavák, F. M. Pelcl, and the priests B. M. Kulda, B. Jablonský, and F. Sušil, a great biblical exegete and collector of folk songs.
The Moravian Poles. The Romantic drama in Bohemia boasts the names of Václav Klement Klicpera (d. 1859) and Josef Kajetán Tyl (1808–56). The leading poet of the first quarter of the century was Karel Hynek Mácha (1810–36), who, influenced by Byron, marked the beginning of new Czech poetry with his poem *Máj* (*May*), rich in melodic suggestions and dramatic tension. The first Czech journalist of national significance was Karel Havlíček Borovský (1821–56), who created Bohemian political satire in the three poems *Křest svatého Vladimíra* (*The Baptism of St. Vladimir*), *Tyrolské elegie* (*Tyrolean Elegies*), and *Král Lávra* (*King Lávra*).
Following the path opened by Čelakovský was Karel Jaromír Erben (1811–70) with his *Kytice* (*The Bouquet*), a collection of ballads drawing on Slavic mythology and the Christian morality of the people.
The first major Bohemian woman writer was Božena Němcová (1820–62), who, besides valuable folkloric works and various tales, composed the enchanting family chronicle *Babička* (*The Grandmother*), a series of vignettes of popular life and nature. In 1858 a new poetic generation gathered around the almanac *Máj*; among its members were Josef Svatopluk Machar (1864–1942), author of *Confiteor* and *Tristium Vindobona*, fiercely anticlerical and oscillating between nationalist and socialist themes; Petr Bezruč (1867–), who sang with epic vigor the misery and sorrows of the Silesian land; in prose, Josef Holeček (1833–1929), creator of the epic *Naši* (*Our People*); Karel Matěj Čapek-Chod (1860–1927), author of social novels; the Catholic priests V. Kosmák, J. S. Baar, and S. Bouška, the first two writing realistic prose drawn from rural parish life and the last also a translator and poet.
The principal names of Bohemian decadence were the poets Jiří Karásek ze Lvovic (d. 1921) and Karel Hlaváček (d. 1898). Symbolism was represented by the mystic Otakar Březina (1868–1929), and impressionism by Antonín Sova, a poet of the landscapes of southern Bohemia. In the first decades of the twentieth century there emerged the initiator of new Czech criticism, F. X. Šalda (1867–1937); the poets Viktor Dyk (1877–1931), Stanislav K. Neumann (1873–1947), Karel Toman (1877–1946), Otakar Theer (d. 1917); the woman writer Božena Beneš Třebízská (d. 1884); Alois Jirásek (1851–1930); and Zikmund Winter (d. 1912). The rural and village tale was represented by Karel V. Rais (d. 1926), Karel Klostermann (d. 1923), and Alois Mrštík (d. 1925). At the beginning of the twentieth century there also emerged the poet Marie Pujmanová (1873–1936).
After the First World War avant-garde tendencies spread, such as “poetism” (echoing surrealism), represented especially by Vítězslav Nezval and Jaroslav Seifert. Among other poets of European stature who emerged in recent decades, mention should be made of Jiří Wolker (1900–24), Josef Hora (d. 1945), František Halas, and Vladimír Holan. Among prose writers: Jaroslav Hašek, the eccentric author of the adventures of *The Good Soldier Švejk*; Karel Čapek (1890–1938), writer of utopian novels, detective stories, and travel impressions; Vladislav Vančura (1891–1943), who based his novels on a cult of the word and harked back to the prose models of the humanists; and finally the broadly gifted Catholic writer Jaroslav Durych (b. 1886). Among contemporary writers, mention should be made of some representatives of the Catholic current: in poetry, Josef Zahradníček, Jakub Deml, Jan Dědina, Jan Lazecký, Václav Benda, and Albert Vyskočil; in prose, Karel Schulz and Jan Čep.
Angelo Maria Ripellino
IV. Slovak Literature
Slovak literature is recent, in that a properLiterary language begins only with A. Bernolák (1762-1813), a Catholic priest. Bernolák established the fundamental rules of Slovak orthography in a study entitled *Linguae slavicae per regnum Hungariae usitatae compendiosa simul et facilis orthographia* (1787). In 1795, Bernolák founded in Trnava a literary association, the *Erudita societas slovacca*, around which the entire Catholic cultural and spiritual world gathered. The separation of Slovak literary language from Czech signified the separation of the great majority of the population, which was Catholic. A determined will to draw closer to the people lay behind this assertion of linguistic and national autonomy. The first Slovak poet, Ján Hollý (q.v.; 1783-1849), was a priest; he was also a good translator of the *Aeneid* and wrote poems imbued with Pan-Slavic ideas.
At the origin of the Slovak linguistic secession, there also emerged the desire to defend against governmental attempts at Magyarization and the intention to affirm a specifically “Slovak” consciousness, in contrast to a “Czechoslovak” conception deemed abstract and not corresponding to historical, moral, and linguistic reality.
A characteristic exponent of the Slovak “renaissance” can be considered Ľudovít Štúr (1815-1856). The language he used diverged from that of Bernolák. With his poetry, several inspirations drawn from folk songs gained prominence; against this romanticism with a predominantly folkloric background, another romanticism with a historical-political backdrop counterbalanced it: in short, with Štúr and his disciples, the penetration into Slovakia of Russian “Slavophile” ideas began. The Slavic world in general and Russia in particular were contrasted with the West; in the Slavic world, one wished to see creative youthful freshness, religious depth, and a peaceful and democratic spirit. Following Herder, a radiant future was predicted for the Slavic world, while the West, through hasty Romantic schematizations of Russo-schismatic origin, appeared to these enthusiastic “Slavs” as more or less irreparably fallen into hedonism and materialism. Even in the face of the Western and “European” Prague, an emphasis was sought on a more marked Slavic self-awareness. Among Štúr’s disciples and followers, Samo Chalupka (1812-83) deserves particular mention. The restless Janko Král’ (1822-76), an exponent of typically nineteenth-century patriotic and revolutionary tendencies and also characteristic for certain “avant-garde” elements in his lyric poetry—elements that in a certain way appeared “pre-impressionistic”—was also notable as a poet. Great fame was achieved by Ján Botto (1829-1881), author of a short epic poem entitled *Smrť Jánošíkova* (*The Death of Jánošík*). In his glorification of Jánošík (a romantic outlaw idealized in folklore), Botto skillfully fused various elements of folk poetry. Andrej Sládkovič (pseudonym of Brazatoris, 1820-72), while connecting to some tendencies of Štúr, forcefully and originally expressed the Slovak landscape and folk traditions, surpassing the limits of folklorism and provincial art. Svetozár Hurban Vajanský (1847-1916), an interesting and at times paradoxical figure as both a politician and writer, instead emphasized and, in a way, modernized the Slavophile elements of Štúr: an enthusiastic admirer of Tsarist Russia, he spared no barbs at democratic and bourgeois Prague. In his stories of Slovak life, vigorous elements are not lacking. Among Catholics, particular mention should be made of the literary and cultural movement centered on F. R. Osvald (q.v.), which in a certain way connects back to Bernolák.
Two writers, however, hold particular importance in modern Slovak literature: Pavol Ország Hviezdoslav (1849-1921) and Martin Kukučín (1860-1928). The former possessed a broad horizon of Western culture and was also a passionate devotee of Dante. Among his works are a robust and lively epic-lyric composition, *Hájnikova žena* (*The Forester’s Wife*), as well as his religious songs. Martin Kukučín (pseudonym of Matěj Bencúr) is the most notable of Slovak novelists and short story writers; his novels reflect, with European sensibility, characteristic aspects of Slovak life. One of his ambitious novels is inspired by Dalmatian life.
For several decades, considerable cultural activity (literary, artistic, linguistic, and folkloric) was carried out by the *Matica Slovenská*, the principal center of the Slovak national revival, based in Turčiansky Svätý Martin. The *Matica Slovenská* developed particularly after the formation of the Czechoslovak state (1918). In the field of Catholic culture, the association of St. Adalbert (*Spolok Svätého Vojtecha*), founded in 1870, has played a significant role.
Between the two world wars, considerable fame was gained by Milo Urban, born in 1904, author of a substantial work, *Živý bič* (*The Living Whip*), a narrative of life in a Slovak village during the First World War. Already after 1918, a Marxist tendency began to take shape in part of Slovak literature. The “fathers” of
The "sons" admirers of the new communist Russia corresponded to the *vofili*. Among these writers, Laco Novomeský deserves mention, in whose poetry echoes of French surrealism are also reflected. Other noteworthy writers include Krasko, Rázus, Roy, Jesenský, Tajovský, and Hronský. In the Catholic sphere, figures such as I. Somolický, T. Milkin, and A. Radlinský are remembered; in more recent times, J. Silan, I. Hlina, and R. Dilong. Slovak cultural life continued to develop along its principal currents in an atmosphere of intensely felt religious values, conscious of tradition.
The end of the Second World War was to have, however, strong repercussions also in the literary and cultural life of Slovakia. The Marxist current, though remaining in the minority, grew stronger, soon occupying important directive positions in the fields of education, culture, and journalism. This position of predominance has been further strengthened in recent times following political events that have placed Czechoslovakia within the Soviet orbit. Under communist pressure, which ultimately extinguished all independent literary tendencies, numerous Czech and Slovak writers were forced to leave their homeland. Among the latter are the already mentioned Hronský, who, during his stay in Italy, drew artistic inspiration from the Roman environment, as well as F. Hrušovský, M. Šprinc, K. Strmeň, and S. Mečiar. Various Slovak literary publications have appeared in the United States.
V. Arte
The earliest artistic manifestations in the territory of the Czechoslovak Republic date from the advent of Christianity. However, of the first Latin mission, which came from the West, as well as of the mission of SS. Cyril and Methodius, which arrived from the East in 863, no artistic monuments remain, only literary references to churches probably built of wood. It seems that the first church of masonry was erected (between 926 and 929) by St. Wenceslas: a relatively large round church with four apses. This building, an important Carolingian architectural monument, served the country not only as the church of the residence of the holy prince but also as the place of rest for his relics, and, after 973, as the cathedral of the Bishop of Prague, the prototype of the Christian church. Indeed, in the following period, churches of feudal lords were built on this model, and later also those of villages. Toward the end of the 10th century, with the foundation of the monastery of St. George, the first three-aisled church with tribunes arose in Prague.Further development of Romanesque architecture enriched the Bohemian territory with not only centrally planned churches but also with one- or three-aisled churches, often of considerable size.
In Slovakia, too, a considerable number of churches were built in the 12th century, bearing the characteristics of the Romanesque age. Romanesque art continued to dominate there even during the following century.
Toward the middle of the 13th century, the pioneers of Gothic architecture, the Cistercian monks, arrived in the territory. After 1300, Gothic forms were commonly used both in churches run by the mendicant orders and in those being built in the cities. In Bohemia, the apogee of Gothic architecture is represented by the construction of St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague. Charles IV entrusted this undertaking in 1344 to the French architect Matthias of Arras and, after his death in 1352, to Peter Parler, who infused his building with the Flamboyant style. This style reached its climax in the Church of St. Barbara in Kutná Hora and was used until the mid-16th century; indeed, even at the end of that century, buildings in the late Gothic style were still being erected. In Slovakia, Gothic architecture triumphed in the Church of St. Elizabeth in Košice (15th century).
Sculpture, whose earliest manifestations in Bohemia date from the 12th century, reached a remarkable level in the second half of the 14th century, particularly through the work of masters employed at Prague Cathedral. Among their works are the statue of St. Wenceslas, the tombs of Bohemian kings, and the busts in the triforium of the Cathedral.
The earliest examples of painting also appear in Bohemia in the 12th century; in the 14th century, Italian and French influences penetrated the territory, which
They developed according to a local taste documented by panel paintings, among which particularly noteworthy are those by the Master of Vyšší Brod (mid-14th century) and of Třeboň (c. 1380), and by mural paintings at Karlštejn (c. 1365) and in the monastery of Emaus in Prague. However, as early as the beginning of the 12th century, miniature painting was flourishing in Bohemia. Excellent documents are the Coronation Evangelary of King Vratislav of 1085 and the Psalter of the monastery of Ostrov from the 12th century. Particularly notable are also the Passional of Abbess Kunhuta (c. 1320), the splendid manuscripts of Bishop Giovanni of Streda, those of Archbishop Ernesto of Pardubice (mid-14th century), and the manuscripts of King Venceslao IV (early 15th century).
During the reign of King Carlo IV, in the second half of the 14th century, the arts enjoyed a very wide development in Bohemia; this, however, was abruptly interrupted in 1420 by the Hussite wars, during which there were frequent outbursts of true iconoclasm. With the return of peace, a period of revival of late Gothic style followed, until at the beginning of the 17th century the first manifestations of the Baroque style appeared. The credit for its extraordinary diffusion is owed above all to the Italian architects who worked in the region, such as those belonging to the families of the Luraghi and the Orsi, and to the architects of the Society of Jesus. Essentially through their work, after the Battle of the White Mountain (in 1620), new churches and colleges arose. Among the particularly significant artists of that period, the Romanized architect Gianbattista Mathey (1630–95) is to be remembered. The flourishing of sacred architecture in the Baroque period was contributed to especially also by Cristoforo Dienzenhofer (q.V. s.V. 1722) and his son Kilian Ignazio (q.V. 1690–1751), who, however, after an initial period in which he connected with Guarini, adopted Borrominian forms. A curious interpretation of Gothic forms is offered by Giovanni Santini (1667–1723). Among the host of excellent sculptors of the Baroque period, Ferdinando Maximiliano Brokoff (1688–1731) and Mattia Bernardo Braun (1684–1738) are noteworthy. Among the painters in Bohemia are recalled Karel Škréta, trained in Italy (1610–74), Pietro Brandl (1668–1735), and the fresco painter Venceslao Lorenzo Rainer (1689–1743); in Moravia, Giovanni Giorgio Etgens (1693–1754) and Giuseppe Giovanni Wintelhalter (1743–1807).
Meanwhile in Slovakia a series of masters worked, among whom the sculptor Giorgio Raffaele Donner (q.v.), whose activity there unfolded between 1728 and 1739. The Nazarene school found its most notable representative in the painter F. Tkadlík (1786–1840) and had some influence on the work of the sculptor Václav Levý (1820–70), trained in Rome. The greatest Bohemian painter of the past century, Giuseppe Mánes (1820–71), contributed to the decoration of churches, and the most famous sculptor of this period, Giuseppe Venceslao Myslbek (1844–1922), modeled the monumental group of St. Venceslao in the main square of Prague, a crucifix of exquisite realism, and the magnificent kneeling figure of Cardinal Schwarzenberg. František Kysela (1881–1941) began at that time the stained-glass windows of Prague Cathedral, later continued by Max Švabinský, who is among the best-known living Czechoslovak artists (b. 1873). In the decorative arts J. Fantana was prolific; in sacred painting, Felix Jenewein (1857–1905). Among modern architects who made a name in the field of sacred art was Kamil Hilbert (1869–1932); finally, Giuseppe Gočár (1880–1945), inspired by modern constructivism, designed the church of St. Venceslao in Prague. The name of the sculptor Ignazio Weirich (1856–1916) is well known even in Rome.
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. – In the years 1918–38 the school system was divided into Czech, Slovak, German, Hungarian, Polish, and Ruthenian. The ideas of Comenius (q.v.) did not underlie education in its entirety, since religious education, the cornerstone of Comenius’s system, was reduced to a secondary and non-compulsory subject. A gap thus arose which it was sought to fill with the teaching of “the doctrine of civil life,” intended to form the moral and political character of pupils in the first three grades. There was no single textbook for this subject, and wide freedom was allowed in the choice of material to be taught. The study of experimental psychology was fostered, and an “Institute of Human Labour” was created, charged with investigating the effectiveness of selection methods in secondary schools. The secondary school was to select the future ruling class while also forming character. To gain a clearer view of the pupil’s character, three-day camps were established in Prague and Brno, where the pupil was examined from all sides. Attempts were made to determine inclinations purely by means of psycho-technical tests. Prague housed a Ukrainian University for exiled Ukrainians. Mukachevo, Uzhhorod, and Malý Berezný were centers of the Uniate Church, which aimed at educating intellectuals and clergy who were to promote the rebirth of the Ukrainian people in Russia and Poland. The school was not to lose contact with the family, and so “student committees” and “parents’ councils” were instituted; to maintain contact with the world of manual labour, the latter became a principal subject in the first two grades. In the years 1945–49 the school abandoned the previous orientation to become increasingly a politically partisan school. Communist doctrine gained ever more ground. Education was popularized, the Russian language was introduced at all levels, a total renewal of school textbooks was envisaged, and the reprinting of ancient texts was provisional.
Particular care was given to preschool education, which was divided into crèches for children from six weeks to three years and kindergartens for children from three to seven years; compulsory schooling was extended to the age of fifteen (q.