Ukraine

UKRAINE. - I. GEOGRAPHY. - One of the 16 federated Republics of which the U.S.S.R. consists, having entered the Union on 30 Dec. 1922 (abbreviation: U.S.S.R.). Its territory, which covered 445,300 sq. km. in 1939, grew to its present 576,000 sq. km. (more than 1/10 of European Russia) through the annexations that took place after the Second World War of Galicia (from eastern Poland), of Transcarpathian Russia (from Czechoslovakia), of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (from Romania).

The U. corresponds to a natural region, which marks the transition from the broadleaf forest of southern Russia to the arid steppes of the SE, from the central European plain to the territories of the lower Don, which foreshadow nearby Asia; and it is at the same time a historical region, on the boundary between the Mediterranean world and the Slavic one, between Catholicism and Russian Orthodoxy, battlefields between Europeans and Asians; and, on the whole, a country of recent colonization.

Its landscape is that of a vast plain, which descends with an imperceptible slope toward the Black Sea, barely disturbed by the incisions opened in it by the watercourses that flow to the Dnieper, the Don and the Donets; and it corresponds to the area in which average annual precipitation remains around 300-450 mm., that is, to a sub-arid sector, whose typical spontaneous vegetation - the steppe - tends to become poorer progressively toward the SE. Conversely, toward the NW, the steppe gives way to the broadleaf forest of central Russia, which includes more than 1/5 of the surface of the present U. (provinces of Kiev, Chernigov and Volhynia).

Within the U.S.S.R. as a whole, as already in tsarist Russia, the U. represents above all a reserve of agricultural products. The original steppe has long since been converted into one of the most productive grain-growing regions of eastern Europe, thanks to the fertility of its soil, the Chernozem

(or black earth): on barely 1/7 of the surface devoted in the Soviet Union to grain cultivation, the U. alone supplies more than a quarter of the production (100 million quintals; in addition to 30 million quintals of rye, 35 of barley, 25 of maize, etc.). Also notable, and recently expanding, are the cultivation of cotton (1/7 of the surface cultivated in the U.S.S.R.) and of sugar beet; as well as those of flax, tobacco, sunflower and fruit trees. Modest, on the other hand, relatively speaking, is the importance of livestock raising, which nevertheless counts 8 million head of cattle, 3-4 of sheep and as many horses.

But no less great is the part that falls to the U. in the industrial production of the U.S.S.R. The southern regions of the U. in fact dispose of conspicuous mineral resources. The Donbass, or Donets basin (extending over 23 thousand sq. km.), while preserving only 6% of the Union's coal reserves, assures it 2/3 of production, while a little to the W., in the Kryvyi Rih sector (Dnieper), iron is extracted (21 million tons available) and in that of Nikopol, manganese; and moreover bauxite near Mariupol, graphite at Uman, and lignites in several places, not to mention the oil of Galicia. Industrial expansion is finally favored by the availability of electric power, whose grandiose installations (Dnieper, 800 thousand HP of installed capacity) are also located in proximity to the mines from which the necessary raw materials are extracted. Among the industries, the metallurgical ones dominate (38% of the pig iron, 25% of the steel, 26% of the rolled products produced in the U.S.S.R.), the mechanical ones (tractors, agricultural machinery, railway machinery, etc.), but other branches are also represented, among which should be remembered, for their importance, the food-processing and the chemical.

The average population density (71 per sq. km.) is the highest among those of the Soviet Federated Republics; in the industrial district of the SE, between Dnieper and Donets, its indices rise locally to over 150-200 inhabitants per sq. km., which is an exceptional value within the U.S.S.R. The population tends to concentrate ever more in the industrial regions and generally in the large urban centers, whose number has by now reached about twenty. Two of them count more than a million inhabitants each: Kiev, the historic capital, and Kharkov, the industrial capital; three, more than 500 thousand inhabitants: Odessa, the most important port, on the Black Sea, Dnepropetrovsk and Stalino, both large industrial complexes, and at least six more than 200 thousand: Lviv, in Galicia, Zaporozhye, Makeyevka, Mariupol, Voroshilovgrad and Kryvyi Rih.

By virtue of its geographical position and its history, the U. is, of all the federated units of the U.S.S.R., the closest to Europe, and the one that more than the others, after the Great Russians, possesses the characteristic elements (tradition, culture, language and literature) of a nationality well individuated in the ethnic mosaic of the Soviet Union.

Giuseppe Caraci

II. CIVIL HISTORY

1. Name

Over the course of the centuries the name of this territory changed several times for internal or external political reasons (Rusj, Ukraina, Malorossija). Herodotus calls it Scythia; from the 4th century it appears under the name Sarmatia. In the 2nd-3rd century A.D. it is called Roksolania. In Italian geographical maps of the 14th-16th centuries it is called Cumania, Comania, but also Sarmatia, Ruthenia, Russia (cf. the maps of Mario Sanuto 1320, Paolo Torlani 1565, etc.). But the names that still hold today are: Rusj (Russia) and Ukraina.

The patriarchs of Constantinople use the terms Magna Russia (Μεγάλη Ρώσια) for the north, and Parva Russia (Μικρά Ρώσια) for the Ukrainian south. This administrative-ecclesiastical distinction was subsequently used by some writers; only after the federation of U. with Muscovy in 1654 did the tsar style himself tsar of "Great and Little Russia" (from the Greek

Ρώσια, not from the ancient Rusj). In time this name became increasingly unwelcome to Ukrainians. After Russia from the 17th century officially changed its name from Muscovy to Russia (Russia), the name U. became ever more firmly established. There are official documents in which almost all the Ukrainian provinces are occasionally designated by this name (letters and appeals of the kings of Poland). From the beginning of the 17th century it was in use among the Cossacks (Konasevyč, 15 Feb. 1622). In 1654 (3 Jan.) it is called "U.-our homeland", in 1658 "Rusj" and "U." are identified with each other (Vyhovskyj in the negotiations with the Swedes). Writers of the 19th century use it commonly (Šavčenkov). With the proclamation of independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic (20 Nov. 1917; 22 Jan. 1918), and of the People's Republic of Western U. (1 Nov. 1918), and later with the creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, it was recognized officially as well. After the proclamation of independent Carpathian U. (15 March 1939) the name U. officially embraced the entire ethnographic territory.

2. Position and ethnography

Between the 21st-45th meridian east and 43rd-53rd north. It rests on the Black Sea, from the mouths of the Danube as far as the Caucasus (ca. 1800 km.). All the other geographical frontiers are open. Ethnographically it borders on the Romanians (900 km.), Hungarians (100 km.), Slovaks (200 km.), Poles (ca. 550), Belorussians (ca. 1000 km.), Russians (700 km.), Don Cossacks (750 km.). The mixed Ukrainian territory borders beneath the Caucasus on the Kalmyks (400 km.), on Dagestan (250 km.) and on the peoples of the Caucasus (ca. 600 km.). These frontiers, as they stood before 1930, underwent notable shifts over the centuries. The political frontiers and the ethnographic boundaries of U. during the last millennium never coincided. The State of Kiev (10th-12th century) extended beyond the ethnographic boundaries (under Vladimir ca. 3 million sq. km.). The Ukrainian Cossack State (17th-18th centuries) comprised 200-300 thousand sq. km. In the period 1917-21 U. counted more than 630 thousand sq. km.; the U.S.S.R. of today 576 thousand sq. km., comprising 3/4 of the entire ethnographic territory, 4/5 of the people, among its 41 million inhabitants. The entire ethnographic territory, outside or inside the U.S.S.R., together with the mixed territories, comprises 945 thousand sq. km., with 55 million inhabitants. About another 5 million Ukrainians live in Asia, Central-Western Europe and in America, as colonists or political emigrants.

3. Historical development

U. was inhabited from prehistoric times. Written sources speak of the Cimmerians, then from the 7th century B.C. of the Scythians; from the 6th century dense Greek colonies settled on the shores of the Black Sea. From the 4th century A.D. the local population is known under the name Antes; Jordanes and Procopius speak of them in the 6th century. Their organization is uncertain; an oligarchy of tribal princes. After another two obscure centuries, the Antes withdrew further north. In the 9th century various tribes appear in history, which later composed the State of the Rurikids of Kiev and developed into three different ethnic and state groups: U., Russia, Belorussia. In the second half of the 9th century the Scandinavian Normans came down the Dnipro and settled halfway (Kiev). The first historical prince of Kiev was Oleh (882-912), who occupied Kiev (882), fought the Byzantines (907, 911) and left the State of Kiev to his son Ihor (912-45). The latter signed a commercial-political agreement with Byzantium in 944. His widow, Olha (945-64), attended to internal affairs. The advance of Christianity in Kiev moved her to Baptism (955-57), but her son Svjatoslav I restored paganism, fighting against the Bulgarians and Greeks. After his tragic death (972) the kingdom was divided among his sons and after a fratricidal struggle, Volodimiro (972-1015) emerged victorious, and led his people to baptism (987-90). His State (ca. 3 million km²) after his death was again divided among his sons, until Jaroslav the Wise reunited it by fighting Byzantines, Poles and Mongols. With 1054, his sons resumed quarrels and internal wars, Izjaslav I leaned on the West, the princes of Perejaslavl on Byzantium, the princes of Černyhiv already sought ties in the north. In 1075 Gregory VII crowned in Rome the son of Izjaslav, Jaropolk. But toward the end of the 11th century the Byzantophile branch of Vsevolod prevailed. His son Volodimiro Mononach brought the State back to its old glories but his successors did not know how to maintain his conquests. In 1145-55 the struggle took place between the southern region and the northern one of Vladimir. Shortly afterwards the North prevailed over the South and there was the sack of Kiev (1169). The glory of Kiev declined irreparably despite the efforts of some princes (e.g., Romano of Halyč [1199-1205], Svjatoslav III [1175-94]) and the history of the individual regions began. The invasion of the Tartars, victorious for the first time in 1223, prevented the ancient State of Kiev from being re-established. Then in 1237-41 they cut this territory irreparably in two, north-eastern (Moscow) and south-western (U., Halyč). The prince of the latter strove to resist with the support, unfortunately only moral (coronation by Innocent IV, 1253) of the West and despite defeats and humiliations succeeded in organizing the State of Galicia and Volhynia, which lasted until the middle of the 14th century. The northern princes saved themselves by collaborating with the Tartars.

The princes of Halych, who dominated the Ukrainian territory almost as far as Kiev and beyond, managed to develop the Ukrainian State through continuous struggles with the Tartars, Lithuanians and Poles. Once the dynasty died out, however, Lithuania and Poland took over politically in the territory. Lithuania in turn underwent a notable cultural influence from U. The union of Lithuania with Poland linked Lithuania ecclesiastically to the Latin West. The union of Horodło (1413) between Poland, Lithuania and U. aimed at a federation under the Jagiellonian dynasty (1377-1433), which reigned until 1572. U. remained partly under the Lithuanian grand dukes, partly under the kings of Poland. With the ecclesiastical Union of Florence (1439), U. sought to place itself on an equal footing in the religious aspect as well. The union failed and collapsed of itself in the first decades of the 16th century, under the political, cultural and religious pressure of Latin Poland-Lithuania, until the union of Lublin (1569) transformed the personal union between Poland and Lithuania into a real union, and many Ukrainian lands were ceded by Lithuania to Poland, remaining open to Polish influence.

The Ukrainians found themselves forced to withdraw into the Black Sea steppe, traversed by the Tartars; thus the Cossack movement developed. They were men of various classes who chose freedom outside the Polish State. For defense against the Tartars they organized themselves into groups (sic) and sought a modus vivendi with the State. The first successes came under King Stephen; shortly afterwards the Venetians, the Austrians and even the Holy See sought to make of them a vanguard against the Turkish danger. Their bold raids as far as the gates of Istanbul created a halo of glory around them. In general the government's policy toward the Cossacks was unfortunate. The Polish magnates saw a danger in the proximity of this democratic and independence-minded movement. Thus a series of internal struggles took place between the two sides (1625-40); until in the decade 1640-50 the uprising against Poland broke out, which under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky was victorious. The new king of Poland granted various privileges and removed various obstacles, but the struggle broke out again with varying fortunes. After fruitless negotiations with Turkey, Sweden and Moldavia, B. Khmelnytsky federated with Muscovy (1654), moved by religious reasons. From as early as 1620 the Cossacks considered themselves the protectors of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church against Catholicism la-

Latin, and they fought the Union of Berest (1596) as an instrument of Poland; in the period 1648-50 they demanded its abolition from Poland as compensation for political peace.

John Mazeppa (1687-1709), relying on Muscovy, which at the time of this union began to be habitually called "Russia", reorganized the territory, promoted cultural development and a certain prosperity, creating in a certain sense a ruling class. During the war of Tsar Peter I (1687-1725) with King Charles XII of Sweden he held back, seeking the opportunity to break away from Muscovy and proclaim his own independence. On the eve of the battle of Poltava he joined with Charles XII and after the defeat fled to Turkey. His successor, Philip Orlyk (1710-40), later became a Catholic and sought in vain to interest Europe in the fate of the U. Peter I re-established the hetmans obedient to Russia, then entrusted the government of the subjugated U. to a so-called "College" under the presidency of Muscovite generals. Elizabeth (1640-62) re-established the hetmanate (C. Rozumovskyj, 1750-64), but Catherine II suppressed that semblance of independence (1764) and aimed at the complete suppression of Ukrainian national and social liberties.

The part of the U. on the right bank of the Dnipro, excluding Kiev, after the Peace of Andrusiv between Poland and Muscovy (1667) returned to Poland. The development of Ukrainian Catholicism in that part saved that part of the U. from complete assimilation to the Polish administration and culture. The head of the nation was the metropolitan of the Ukrainian Church. But social and increasingly insistent administrative pressure provoked in the second half of the 18th century in the U. a popular uprising (hajdamaččina, 1768), which was repressed by Poland and Muscovy. Muscovy occupied the part of Ukrainian territory subject to Polish rule since 1667. A small part came under the rule of Austria (1772) and from then on had a history of its own.

A few years later the territory was divided into governorates, and the land with the peasants was assigned to the favorites of the Tsarina. Toward the end of her reign the Ukrainian Catholic Church was also liquidated, just as in 1685 the non-uniate Ukrainian Church had been subject to the Patriarch of Moscow. The reign of Paul I and of Alexander I brought with it some relaxation in the centralization of the U., but under the reign of Nicholas I (1825-55) the watchword was absolutism, orthodoxy and nationalism. At the same time the national awakening began, the traditions of the homeland began to be cultivated, the powerful song of Ševčenko made itself felt, although later stifled with the ban on publication in the Ukrainian language (1876). Secret societies arose (the Society of Cyril and Methodius), a revolutionary movement, while the peasants demanded land (1861). After the revolution of 1905 political parties were born (democratic, republican, radical, social, etc.) which after the fall of the tsars (1917) emerged in the political life of the U.

Western U. under Austria had difficulties of coexistence with the Poles and the government of Vienna favored now one, now the other. In 1848, with serfdom abolished, the "springtime of the peoples" made itself felt among the Ukrainians too, prepared already in the first half of the century through popular and higher schools, the literary awakening (1837), the creation of the Metropolia of Halvč. In the second half of the century this awakening was hindered by Polish pressures on the government of Vienna, and by the Russophile movement, favored and developed by Russia. Nevertheless a national press began, political parties arose (radical, popular, democratic-national, democratic-social). Parliamentary life (1867) and the struggle for a Ukrainian University in Lviv began and developed. The same happened, although with a slight delay, in Carpathian U. under Hungarian rule, and in Bukovina.

Toward the end of the First World War both in Kiev and in Lviv the realization of national independence seemed near. Already from March 1917 in Kiev the Congresses of the various parties followed one another. The Central Council was constituted, and the trade-union Congresses followed. After the assumption of power in Moscow by the communists, the full independence of the U. was proclaimed, the separate peace with the central powers was signed (9 Nov. 1918) and the communist threat was repelled with the help of the Germans (period of Skoropadskyj). But with the German demobilization, the communists advanced. In the same period in the western part, subject to Austria, after the collapse of the Habsburg Empire, the Western Ukrainian Republic was proclaimed, which united on 22 Jan. 1919 with the eastern part, also uniting its defensive efforts against the Bolsheviks, against Polish aggression, and against the Russian tsarist generals. In 1920 the agreement with Poland was signed and Kiev reconquered. But a new communist advance drove the Ukrainian armies toward the west. Warsaw was threatened, and saved with common efforts. Poland made peace with the communists at Riga (18 Nov. 1922). Galicia and Volhynia passed under the Poles, the eastern U. became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic with its own government, which little by little was reduced to a satellite of Russia, and united with other Soviet Socialist Republics in the Soviet Union (10 May 1925); Carpathian U. in these circumstances united with a guarantee of autonomy to Czechoslovakia (10 Sept. 1919). Bukovina was assigned by the Paris Peace Conference to Romania.

In Soviet U. after the famine of 1921-22 and after the new economic policy (NEP) came collectivization and industrialization with the subsequent famine of 1933, the purges of the bourgeoisie, of the "nationals" and of deviationist communists.

In Poland every attempt to obtain autonomy remained sterile. Despite the centralist regime of Warsaw, cultural and economic life nevertheless developed in the country. In Czechoslovakia the promised autonomy was not realized: a Russophile movement also developed there. But the national movement too was able to organize its forces, so that in 1938-39 it was able to assume power in the country and, after the fall of Czechoslovakia, proclaim independence (15 March 1939). In Bukovina the Romanian pressure was perceptible.

At the beginning of the Second World War the western U. was for the most part occupied by Soviet troops and united with the U.S.S.R.; and Carpathian U. was occupied by Hungary. After 22 June 1941 almost all Ukrainian territory was occupied by the Germans and their allies and placed under a military or civil administration (Generalgouvernement, Commissariat of U., Transnistria). With the advance of the Soviet armies in 1943-44 the U. was reoccupied and reconstituted as a Soviet Republic together with Carpathian U. (29 June 1945). Thus the U.S.S.R. united almost all Ukrainian lands. From the remnants left outside the borders, the population was transferred into the U. The communist regime began again in full. The Catholic Church was destroyed, the partisan movement fought and driven back into the mountains. Part of the political emigration took refuge abroad, developing and reorganizing the parties and constituting a Ukrainian National Council.

Thus the question of the self-determination of the Ukrainian people remains open as a national and international juridical problem.

BIBL: per più ampie e recenti referenze biblio: v. L'Euclapedia dell'U., Monaco-Parigi 1949-51. Inoltre: K. Edinger, Russlands älteste Beziehungen zu Deutschland, Frankreich und der römischen Kurie, Halle 1911; C. Hallendorf, Carl XII i Ukraine, Stoccolma 1915; B. Nolde, L'Ukraine sous protectorat Russe, Parigi 1915; T. Wojnarowskyj, Das Schicksal des uhr, Volkes unter polnischer Herrschaft, Vienna 1921; V. Singulović, La questione della Galizia, Roma 1922; M. Rostowzeff, Les orig. de la Russie Kievienne, in Rev. des études slaves, 2 (1922); B. Leib, Kiev et Byzance à la fin du XIe siècle, Parigi 1924; F. Dwornik, Les Slaves, Byzance et Rome au IXe siècle, ivi 1926; E. Borschak, Le mouvement national ukraine au XIXe siècle, ivi 1930; R. Martel, La politique nationale des Soviets en Ukraine, in Le monde slave, 3 (1930); 2 (1934); M. Korduba, Les théories les plus récentes sur les orig. de la Rothénie, in Le monde slave, 3 (1931); E. Borschak-Rene Martel, Vie de Mazepe, Parigi 1931; R. Tisserand, La vie d'un peuple, L'Ukraine, ivi 1933; E. Borschak, L'Ukraine dans la littér. de l'Europe occid., ivi 1935; H. Schumann, Der Hetmonstaat 1643-1764, Berlino-Breslau 1936; M. Korduba, La littér. histor. soviet.-ucraienne, Varsavia 1938; E. Borschak, L'Ukraine à la Conférence de la Paix, Parigi 1938; R. Bondioli, U., La terra martire ed indoma, Roma 1939; E. Onatskyj, Studi di stor. e di cultura ucraina, ivi 1939; B. Krupnyckyj, Die histor. Wissenschaft der Sowjet-Ukraine 1921-41, Breslavia-Berlino 1941; D. Doroshenko, Ukrainian history since 1912, in The Slavic Review, 3 (1942), fasc. 7; A. Jakowliw, Das deutsche Recht in der Ukraine, Lipsia 1942; E. Winter, Byzance und Rom im Kampf um die Ukraine, ivi 1942; G. Vernadsky, Kievan Russia, Nuova Heaven 1948; I. Mirchuk, Ukraine and its people, Monaco 1949; C. A. Manning, Twentieth century Ukraine, Nuova York 1951.

Alfonso Gregorio Welykyj

III. STORIA ECCLESIASTICA: V. KIEV.

IV. LITERATURE

At the end of the 10th century the development of Ukrainian literature begins. Until the 18th century the old Church Slavonic language was used, introduced into the Ukraine together with Christianity and profoundly altered over the centuries in lexicon, phonetics and morphology. From the 11th century translations from Greek and from Church Slavonic spread in the Ukraine: liturgical and moral books, aphoristic, hagiographic, apocryphal, historical works, tales and novels of Eastern origin transmitted, in a certain way, through Bulgaria. In the literature of its origins, ecclesiastical oratorical prose stands out first of all: sermons of St. Theodosius of the Caves, of the Metropolitan of Kiev Ilarion, of Cyril of Turov (12th century), of Serapion of Kiev, Bishop of Vladimir (13th century). Also noteworthy are the Admonitions to his Children of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (12th century). Among hagiographic works are the Life of Sts. Boris and Hlib, the Life of St. Theodosius of the Caves, and above all the Paterikon of the Kiev Caves (13th century), a collection of biographies of the holy monks of Kiev and of accounts concerning the founding of the monastery. Of greater importance are the chronicles (down to the 12th century) and particularly those of Galicia and Volhynia, which provide ample and varied material on the vicissitudes of the Ukraine. Among narratives of an epic character, the Song of Igor's Campaign (c. 1087) by an unknown author stands out for its poetic merits, full of national feeling, pervaded by images from pre-Christian mythology, interesting for its fusion of folkloric tints and literary artifice (v. also RUSSIA, literature).

After a period of literary depression in the 14th-15th centuries, literature is reborn with the struggle for independence under Chmelnytskyj. From the end of the 16th century and throughout the 17th and 18th centuries Baroque predominates. To this phase belong the numerous polemical treatises and libels (in connection with the Union of Berest of 1596) of the Metropolitan I. Potij, G. Smotryckyj, M. Smotryckyj, Z. Kopystenskyj, J. Boreckyj; the sermons of J. Galatovskyj, L. Baronovyč, A. Radyvylovskyj and others; the collections of tales of Kosov, A. Kalnofojskyj, D. Tuptalo. From the 18th century the so-called Cossack Annals of Samovydec, G. Hrabianka, S. Velyčko have been preserved. The rich Baroque poetry in verse of a spiritual character arises (K. T. Stavroveckyj), and later (with the collection Herald of God, 1790) that of a patriotic, panegyric, philosophical (G. Skovoroda) and amorous-lyrical character. Baroque drama (17th and 18th centuries) is represented by D. Tuptalo, T. Prokopovyč (Vladimir, 1705); by the anonymous Grace of God (1728); by G. Konyskyj and others. Easter dramas, dramas on the saints and moralities have comic intermezzi and amply document the popular language (e.g., the comic dialogues of Ivan Kraševyč of the end of the 18th century). In the burlesque poem Eneida (1798-1849) by Ivan Kotlarevskyj, Ukrainian literature abandons the Church Slavonic language to adopt the living popular one. With this and other works Kotlarevskyj earns the well-deserved appellation of "father of Ukrainian literature." In the 19th century appear the burlesque and pre-Romantic tales (Muruja) of Kvitka-Osnovjaneko.

Romanticism, in the period 1830-50, linked to the admiration of folk song and of the national antiquity, gives impetus to Ukrainian literature. The lyric poetry of L. Borovykovskyj, L. Hrebinka, M. Petrenko, A. Mohyla-Metlynskyj, the poems and tragedies of M. Kostomarov, the tales of O. Storoženko and, in western Ukraine, the collection Nymph of the Dniester (1837) of the priest M. Šaškevyč, I. Vahylevyč and I. Holovackyj, draw inspiration from folk song, bringing into Ukrainian literature motifs of European poetry. With the Nymph of the Dniester a new epoch in literature begins in western Ukraine. In the figure of Ševčenko (1814-61) Ukrainian literature has found its greatest poet: noteworthy is the depth of his analysis of the historical past of the Ukraine, and deeply felt in his verses is the suffering of the Ukrainian people. Among his best and best-known works are remembered: Dream; The Great Ravine; Caucasus; Message. In him thematic and ideological richness is joined with artistic perfection. Pantelejmon Kuliš, poet (tales Dawn, 1893; Country Poems, 1882; The Bell, 1893), novelist with a historical background (The Black Council, 1857), short-story writer, playwright, critic and translator of Byron and Shakespeare, enriches Ukrainian literature with ideas and motifs from Western literatures. In the transition from Romanticism to realism, Marko Vovčok (pseudonym of M. Vilinska-Markovyč) is noted with her Folk Tales (1837); the poet and prose writer F. Pedjkovyč; the poets S. Rudanskyj, L. Hlibov; the poets with a realistic background O. Pčika, B. Hrinčenko, I. Mandžura, P. Hrabovskyj sing of the harsh fate of the people. Realistic-popular prose is represented by A. Svydnyckyj (Ljuboracki, 1862); I. Nečuj-Levyckyj (Mykola Dzerja and other novels on the life of peasants and intellectuals: The Clouds); P. Myrnyj (novels, The Lost Forces, The Harlot). A noteworthy and complex figure is Ivan Franko (1856-1916), describer of the social underworld (Bon constrictor and Boryslav Laughs) and of the life of intellectuals (The Crossed Paths). In poetry he oscillates between realism, lyrical notes and philosophical motifs (The Withered Leaves; My Emerald and others).

Impressionism in modern prose manifests itself with M. Kociubynskyj (Fata Morgana; The Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors), O. Kobyljanska, K. Hrynkevyč, M. Ceremšyna (pseudonym of Ivan Semeniuk); G. Chotkevyč, W. Stefanyk (The Maple Leaves; My Word); S. Vasylčenko, A. Teslenko, M. Jačkiv, B. Lepkyj and others. In the orbit of psychological realism are found some poets: A. Krymskyj, I. Seagull of the Dnieper (pseudonym of L. Vasylevska), V. Samijlenko. The modern orientation is also reflected in the poets of the group The Young Muse: P. Karmanskyj, V. Pačovskyj and others, as well as B. Lepkyj. To be remembered is the singer of the national revolution O. Olesj (pseudonym of Kandyba), and finally M. Filanskyj, V. Vorona (pseudonym of Laryssa Kosač, 1871-1913) in lyric poetry (On the Wings of Song; White-Handed Isolde), in dramatic poems (Babylonian Greeting; On the Ruins; Orgy; The Stone Master; The Song of the Forest and others) enriches Ukrainian poetry with inspirations from history and world literature, also exalting the resistance of Ukrainians against oppressors. The Soviet regime made its pressure increasingly felt on Ukrainian cultural and literary life.

Symbolism created in the Ukraine the fusion of popular tradition with a modern sensibility. In this connection P. Tyčyna is remembered (Clarinets of the Sun; Plough), who under the pressure of the regime ended up becoming the official poet of the Kremlin. The same fate befell M. Rylskyj (Under the Autumn Stars; Azure Horizons; The Thirteenth Spring). From the group of the neoclassicists M. Zerov (The Kamena), the most important of them, was liquidated together with P. Fylypovyč and M. Draj-Chmara. Their work was continued in western Ukraine by J. Klen, M. Orest, S. Hordynskyj. Among the other poets are distinguished V. Svidzinskyj, E. Plužnyk, T. Osmačka, B. I. Antonyč in western Ukraine, M. Bažan, who became official poet from 1934 (Engraved Shadow; The Constructions).

Historical themes were treated with philosophical insights by the group of poets from Western U. or emigrants, contributors to the newspaper Visnyk (1930), E. Malaniuk (The Earthly Madonna); O. Olžyč (Shadow; The Towers); O. Ljaturynska, L. Mosendz, O. Teliha, J. Lypa, P. Stefanovyč and others; in prose the best known are: G. Kosynka, M. Chvylovyj (Autumn), A. Lubčenko (The Path of the Storm; She); J. Janovskyj (The Master of the Ship; The Four Sabres); V. Pidmodrynj (The Problem of Bread; The City); M. Ivčenko (The Working Forces); B. Antoneko-Davydovyč; in Volhynia U. Samčuk (Volhynia; Maria). Among playwrights the first place belongs to M. Kulič (Myna Mazailo; The Pathetic Sonata). Communist persecutions against Ukrainian literature took on particular scope in 1933-38. During this period ca. 100 Ukrainian writers were shot and deported, others were turned into instruments of Soviet propaganda, without any possibility of deviating from the official line of so-called "socialist realism."

Also in Western U. in the first postwar period new paths were sought. The entire literary life of Galicia, Volhynia, and the emigration grouped around four journals: The New Ways, Sovietophile, with the exaltation of the work of the Soviet Union; The Messenger, of national orientation, led by E. Malaniuk and O. Olžyč in poetry and R. Jendyk and U. Samčuk in prose; We (in Warsaw) with a group of writers tied to the past; the fourth group around the journal Encounter bears the names of J. Kosač, S. Hordynskyj and others. Catholic writers were grouped around Bells (Lviv) where the poetry of B. I. Antonyč and the prose of N. Koroleva stand out. Also to be noted is the group of women writers K. Hrynereyčeva, N. Koroleva, I. Wilde, H. Zurba, U. Kravčenko.

In Bukovina literary life in the postwar period almost did not exist. There was more vigor instead in Carpathian U., with the young writers: V. Grendža-Donskyj, Zoreslav, I. Irlavskyj, A. Harasevyč.

In the second postwar period all literary activity outside Soviet U. took place in Western Europe. America gave little and nothing of note. In the "Ukrainian Artistic Movement" the process of rapprochement between the writers of Eastern and Western U. began. New names emerged with current, worldwide and traditional historical themes (H. Schidnyj, B. Domontovyč, I. Kosteckyj; M. Orest, V. Barka, L. Poltava, etc.). - See plate LNV.

B. Lepkyi (1909), M. Vozniak (1920-24), S. Jefremov (1923), L. Bileckyj (1931), A. Beleckyj (1940), V. Petrov (1946), O. Doroškevyč (1924), A. Samraj (1927), R. Radzykevyč, M. Hlobenko, etc. D. Tschizevskyj, Gesch. der altrussischen Literatur in XI., XII. und XIII. Jahrh. Kiever Epoche, Frankfurt 1948, etc.

Mykola Hlobenko