VIENNA (Wien, Latin: Vindobona), ARCHDIOCESE OF. – Metropolitan see and capital of the Republic of Austria. The territory of the archdiocese covers an area of 9,220 sq. km. with 2,049,224 Catholics (out of a total population of 2,310,642), of whom 1,459,255 (out of 1,780,000) reside in the city of Vienna alone. It comprises 593 parishes, 186 of which are in the city of Vienna, served by 1,813 priests (1,025 in the city of Vienna). There are 39 male religious orders and congregations and 43 female congregations (cf. Personalstand 1952; Ann. Pont. 1953, p. 447). It has a major seminary in Vienna and a minor seminary in Oberhollabrunn.
I. HISTORY
Vienna lies at the intersection of very ancient trade routes: towards the Balkans along the Danube and from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic (Bernsteinstrasse). The precise point of the river crossing was established where the terrace of the present-day city center, between a branch of the Danube and the Wien stream, forms a well-protected platform. Traces of fortified settlements from the Neolithic age are found on the nearby heights to the right (Bisamberg, 360 m.) and left (Leopoldskberg, 423 m.) of the Danube. When, in 15
VIENNA, ARCHDIOCESE OF. – View of Vienna during the siege of 1683; etching by Romeyn de Hooghe.
B.C., the region came under Roman rule, there were several Celtic settlements on the territory of the present-day city of Vienna. The one located at the strategic point mentioned above was transformed in the second half of the 1st century into the “castrum Vindobona”; another center, along the Danube road, between the present-day districts III and IV, developed as a civilian city of about 10,000–15,000 inhabitants. Trajan stationed a legion there; Marcus Aurelius died in the castrum of Vienna in 180. Around 395, the capital Carnuntum, severely devastated during the barbarian invasions, declined; but life continued in and around Vienna, and the civilian city moved within the safer confines of the surviving castrum, enduring all the upheavals. St. Severinus, the apostle of Noricum (d. 482), often stayed near ancient Vienna; recent excavations in the church of St. James at Heiligenstadt (district XIX) have reportedly uncovered the original tomb of the Saint (his remains, during the great exodus of the Roman element in 488, were taken to Italy). Jordanes, in his Gothic History, mentions Vienna under the name of Vindomina (551), and a document from 881 refers to it as Wenia.
Under the House of Babenberg (976–1246), which governed the reconstituted Carolingian Eastern March (Ostmark), Vienna grew rapidly and became a point of contact between the Germanic, Slavic, Magyar, and Italian worlds: in 1130 it appears under the name Wien; in 1137 it is recorded as a city, and by 1150 it had become a ducal residence.
After the extinction of the Babenbergs, Austria passed to Ottokar II, King of Bohemia (1251–78), who greatly favored Vienna. But the true fortune of the city began with the rise of the House of Habsburg (1278–1918), under which Vienna remained for centuries (1439–1806) not only the capital of the Holy Roman Empire but also the center of the Austrian dominions (1526: union of the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns with the House of Austria). In 1365, Rudolph IV founded the University of Vienna; under Maximilian I (1493–1519), the city became one of the first centers of German humanism; in 1498, the “Hofmusikkapelle” was established, one of the earliest and most important of its kind. Twice Vienna was the bulwark of Christian Europe against Muslim power: in the famous sieges of 1529 and 1683. It suffered occupation by Napoleon I in 1805 and 1809 and was the site of the great Congress of Vienna in 1814–15. Although Francis II abdicated the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Vienna continued to be the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Under the long reign of Francis Joseph I (1848–1916), the city was renewed, expanded, and beautified (notably with the “Ringstrasse”), becoming a modern metropolis. By 1910, it had surpassed two million inhabitants.
A severe blow to Vienna was the suppression of the diocese of Vienna by St. Peter Canisius (1554–55). A great and complex figure of bishop and diplomat emerged with the first cardinal of Vienna, Melchior Klesl (q.v.), under whose leadership (1614–30) the Counter-Reformation achieved its definitive triumph. In 1631, the bishop of Vienna was granted the title of Prince of the Empire. Bishop Count Breuner had the magnificent episcopal palace rebuilt by the Coccapani brothers (1631–48). Cardinal Sigismund von Kollonitsch (1716–51) is renowned for his tenure, during which (1722) Emperor Charles VI obtained from Innocent XIII the elevation of Vienna to an archbishopric and metropolitan see (with Wiener-Neustadt as a suffragan), along with a significant territorial expansion. Joseph II, by his own authority, finally suppressed (1783) all foreign ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Austria; after the formal renunciation of Passau (July 4, 1784), he also obtained papal confirmation through the bull of Pius VI, *Romanus Pontifex*, dated January 28, 1785, by which all Austrian territory previously dependent on Passau was divided among the new dioceses of Linz (Upper Austria), Vienna, and Sankt Pölten (Lower Austria), the latter created by transferring the see from Wiener-Neustadt; Vienna became its metropolitan see.
After the Napoleonic era, the Josephine regime gradually softened. Finally, Cardinal Joseph Othmar Rauscher (1833–75), undisputed leader of the Austrian episcopate and principal architect of the Concordat of 1855, marked the public resurgence of Austrian Catholicism.
The most recent archbishops (all cardinals) were: Anton Josef Gruscha (1890–1911); Franz Nagl (1911–1913), organizer of the 1912 International Eucharistic Congress in Vienna; Friedrich Gustav Piffl (1913–32), formerly abbot prelate of Klosterneuburg (q.v.); Theodor Innitzer (from 1932; cardinal in 1933), who lived through the Nazi period (1938–45), which particularly oppressed Catholic Austria, and the difficult post-war recovery of 1945, amid immense material and spiritual ruins. During his episcopate, before 1938, the newspapers *Wiener Kirchenblatt* and *Zwei-Groschen-Blatt* were established, the latter a daily with an exceptionally high circulation, initiated by Monsignor Joseph Gorbach, who used its proceeds to build many parish churches in the outskirts of Vienna; and *Caritas Socialis*, a work founded by the Austrian chancellor Monsignor Ignaz Seipel (q.v.) in cooperation with Mrs. Hildegard Burian, who died in a reputation for holiness. During the Nazi persecution, Cardinal Innitzer founded in Vienna the *Theologische Laienjahr*, a kind of practical-theological seminary for the formation of lay collaborators; today it offers a two-year course for academics and non-academics and, since 1950, also a distance-learning program, granting a diploma qualifying participants to work directly in the cura animarum. In 1946, the same cardinal promoted the *Katholische Akademie*, based in the Abbey of the Scots, an institution of higher learning. In 1947, the Austrian episcopate’s *Siedlungsakademie* began, aimed at promoting, with Church resources and on Church-owned land, the construction of affordable housing. In 1948, the diocesan institute for pastoral care, created to study, coordinate, and strengthen pastoral initiatives, became the *Österreichische Seelsorgeinstitut*; it held its annual study weeks and published its journal *Der Seelsorger*. On April 27, 1952, the *Domfest* was celebrated, i.e., the inauguration of the restored St. Stephen’s Cathedral, and the first Austrian Catholic Congress (September 10–14), commemorating the liberation of Vienna from the Turks (1683)—a highly significant event in the country’s current circumstances.
The three phases in the growth of religious life in V. coincide with the three periods of the general Catholic religious revival:
1. The Middle Ages
The first place belongs to the Benedictine abbey of the “Schotten,” founded by Henry II in 1158 and staffed by Scottish monks until 1418; it earned great merit in the field of general culture and higher education in particular with its gymnasium (v. Cottineau, II, col. 3366). The Franciscans settled in V. around 1120; from 1447 in the Minoritenkirche. St. John Capistran, preaching in V. in 1451 for the Crusade against the Turks, founded there a convent of Observants, which was later transferred (1589) to the center of the city, to the Franziskanerkirche. The Dominicans arrived in V. in 1226. As early as 1220 the Knights of Rhodes (now of Malta) established themselves there, and shortly afterward the Teutonic Knights, V. serving as a natural base for passage to the East. In 1327 the Hermits of St. Augustine were called, and in 1360 the Carmelites (though these died out around 1550). All built large churches, most of which were later transformed in the Baroque period.
2. The Era of the Counter-Reformation
It was especially the ruling house that favored religious Orders in order to re-establish the Catholic religion in the capital. Ferdinand I called the Jesuits in 1551, and St. Ignatius sent Le Jay and Bobadilla; in the same year they opened a College, incorporated in 1622 into the University, in which the Jesuits had great influence. Emperor Matthias called the Capuchins; St. Lawrence of Brindisi led the first contingent to Prague in person; on this occasion V. also received its first house in the suburb of St. Ulrich (1590) and shortly afterward, in the center of the city, the Kapuzinerkirche, beneath which the Emperor himself wished the imperial sepulcher to be erected. He also brought in the Fatebenefratelli (1614), whose hospital has remained to this day a center not only of Christian charity but also of medical science and practice. In 1623 the Discalced Carmelites were called, in 1624 the Minims, in 1628 the Camaldolese Hermits, in 1633 the Benedictines of Montserrat, known as Schwarzsapnieri, who opened the abbey of Emaus in Prague and a priory in V., elevated to an abbey in 1708. The Barnabites were called to the court parish of St. Michael in 1626; in 1660 they also received the sanctuary of Mariahilf. From 1639 the Servites have been in V., known for the cult they propagated of St. Peregrine Laziosi (canonized in 1727), who became extraordinarily popular in V. In the era of the victorious repression of the Turkish Empire, the Trinitarians, known as Weisspanier, were called to V., who, until their suppression under Joseph II, organized more than a thousand redemptions in the East. In 1697 the Piarists, already flourishing in Hungary, opened a college in V., and in 1751 a second one at St. Tecla. Finally, in 1703, the Theatines also received a church and house in V. But Joseph II swept almost all of this away with his suppressions (1780–85).3. The Modern Era
It opens in 1810 with the Mechitarists, who formed in V. a congregation of their own, especially meritorious for their Armenian printing press. Following the activity of St. Clement M. Hofbauer (v.), the Redemptorists were admitted in 1820; shortly afterward the restored Society of Jesus. In 1855 the Lazarists came to settle in V., in 1857 the Brothers of the Christian Schools, in 1912 the Salesians, to say nothing of the many other modern Congregations.
As for the female religious houses, mention is made of them in V. as early as the 12th century. The Poor Clares appeared there only in 1305 (ceasing in 1451), the Dominican Nuns (Second Order) in 1324. Empress Eleonora of Gonzaga, consort of Ferdinand II, called the Carmelites to V. in 1629; they were suppressed by Joseph II but returned in 1879. Eleonora, consort of Leopold I, introduced the Ursulines in 1660 for the education of girls; in 1709 the hospital of the Elisabethines was opened; Empress Amalia, consort of Charles VI, erected in 1717 the convent and church of the Salesian Sisters (Order of the Visitation). These last three religious families escaped the fury of Josephinism because they were devoted to education and thus of public utility. In 1832 Empress Caroline Augusta called the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent to V.; many other religious families followed, and today there are 43 of them.
III. Archaeology
In the city plan, the various stages of its historical development are clearly distinguishable. Notable remains of the castrum have been discovered by recent bombings, 4–8 meters below the pavement of the Hoher Markt, the ancient forum. The city museums preserve a rich archaeological material dating from the Paleolithic age, and especially from the Roman period. The Altertumsverein and the Geschichtsverein, in addition to official bodies, are concerned with the antiquities of V. Within the archdiocese of V. there are also other Roman centers, especially along the Danubian limes, Carnuntum (v.), Cannabiaca castrum with Asturis (Klosterneuburg), Augustianis (Traismauer), and Comagena (Tulln), and along the thermal line, with sulfurous hot springs already frequented by the Romans, such as at Meidling (12th district of V.), at Baden (Aquae) and Vöslau. Despite the many Roman archaeological finds, no Christian elements have yet come to light, with the exception of “Carnuntum.” In 1953, however, important remains of Roman buildings were discovered at Klosterneuburg, including a tripartite hall that could be Christian, and at Heiligenstadt the primitive tomb of St. Severinus with a rough baptismal font nearby (5th century).IV. Churches and Shrines
The archdiocese of V. is very rich in churches notable both for their architecture and for their internal furnishings. All styles are represented, from Romanesque to modern; however, Gothic churches prevail, often later Baroqueized, and those purely Baroque: this is explained above all by the Turkish devastations, especially that of 1683 (v. Arte).4. In the commune of V
The greatest ecclesiastical monument of V., and indeed of all Austria, is the cathedral of St. Stephen. The original construction, a large three-aisled Romanesque basilica with a western façade flanked by two towers and a large figured portal (Riesentor), is due to Henry II Jasomirgott (dedication 1147). Under Leopold VI (c. 1200–10) the construction was continued and enlarged. Under Ottokar II of Bohemia, after two serious city fires (1238 and 1276) and in conjunction with the third attempt to obtain the episcopal see, the pre-existing building was augmented with a Gothic transept with a square choir and apse. Emperor Albert I began, around 1304, a grand Hallenchor, that is, a Gothic choir of three aisles of equal height with three apses, completed under Albert II and dedicated in 1340 (the “Albertine” choir), with precious sculptures on the pillars, a crypt intended as a sepulcher for the dynasty, and a large lectern; at that time the church counted from 24 to 34 altars. Rudolph IV (1358–65) established at St. Stephen a sumptuous chapter (24 canons and numerous clergy), and undertook the construction of a huge Hallenkirche of three naves to replace the Romanesque basilica, of which only the façade was preserved, enlarging and elevating II. reconstructed in Romanesque form, with a lofty Gothic choir and a curious octagonal bell tower with a Gothic cupola (1330–53); the nave was rebuilt (1394–1415) by the master Michele Chnab (?); there remain fragments of stained glass from the 14th and 15th centuries, sculptures of the High Gothic on the piers, and a rare Renaissance altarpiece carved by Giovanni Perger (1520).
The Michaelerkirche (District I) is the largest surviving example in Vienna of Romanesque style (second half of the 13th century), with a Gothic choir (1327) and a tall bell tower (1340–44); the classical high altar dates to 1781. The Minoritenkirche (District I) is a *Hallenkirche* (1251–76) with a characteristic squat bell tower, unchanged since 1529. It contains the famous musical copy of Leonardo’s *Last Supper*, commissioned by Napoleon I. The Augustinerkirche (District I) is also a *Hallenkirche* (1330–39), more advanced in design; its architect was D. Ladtner. Another similar church was that of the Carmelites (1386–1405), called *Am Hof* (District I), which passed to the Jesuits in 1553 and was completely Baroque-ized (1607–10), with an elegant façade and loggia by C. A. Carlone (1622), and paintings by M. Altomonte, Gioacchino Sandrart, and G. M. Schmidt. Notable is the Franziskanerkirche (District I), which presents a Renaissance style with curious Gothic reminiscences, containing works by Ant. Pozzo, G. M. Rottmayr, and G. M. Schmidt. The Kapuzinerkirche (District I), built 1622–32, is very simple but well known for the *Kaisergruft*, the imperial tombs, established by Matthias (first interment in 1633) and repeatedly enlarged. There are 136 sarcophagi containing 140 deceased members of the House of Austria, including 12 emperors and 15 empresses. The Universitätskirche (District I), in the style of early Italian Baroque, dates to 1628–31; its interior, by Ant. Pozzo, is exuberant Baroque (1705–1709). The Dominikanerkirche (District I) was originally a Romanesque church of 1262 with a Gothic choir from 1302, but it was completely rebuilt in Italian Baroque style in 1631–34.
Among the grandest churches of Vienna is the Karlskirche (District IV), built as a votive church by Charles VI during the plague of 1713, a masterpiece by G. Bernardo Fischer von Erlach and his son Giuseppe Emanuele (1716–39), in the form of a Greek cross with a lofty dome and two slender bell towers shaped like twisted columns, adorned with high-reliefs commemorating the life of St. BORROMEO, EDOARDO (v.). Rivaling it is the nearby (District III) Salesianerinnenkirche (1717–30) by Dom. Fel. Allio, a harmonious complex of domed church and convent. Of great interest is the Altherrengfelderkirche (District VII), dedicated to the “Seven Refuges” (a typical Baroque devotion), created by Vienna’s Romantic artists (1850–61); its architecture is Romantic-Neoclassical by G. S. Müller, with frescoes of the period by Giuseppe Führich, L. Kupelwieser, K. Klaas, and others. Typical is the Votivkirche (District IX), built to commemorate the escape of Francis Joseph I from an assassination attempt (18 February 1853), designed by H. von Ferstel (1856–79), a perfect imitation of French Gothic, with fine stained glass by Ed. von Steinle and G. Führich. Then, beyond the Neo-Gothic and Neo-Romanesque churches (19th–20th centuries), there are modern ones: the Don-Boscokirche (1918), the Seipelkirche (1933–34), and the steel church of the Madonna del Carmine by H. L. Prutscher (1942).
The oldest sanctuary in Vienna would be that of Mariabrunn, dating back to the time of St. Gisela, consort of St. Stephen, King of Hungary (993). The present church was built by Ferdinand II (1639–45). In the Sixth District, which takes its name from it, stands the Mariahilferkirche, built 1686–89 on the site of a wooden chapel (1660), completed 1713–30; its rich interior contains celebrated frescoes by P. Troger. More imposing is the Piaristenkirche Maria Treu, by G. L. von Hildebrandt (1716–21).
5. Outside the Municipality of Vienna
In some regions less devastated by war, notable monuments of Romanesque style have been preserved; especially remarkable are two rare examples of round churches with domes: at Petronell, now the family tomb of the Counts Abensberg-Traun, from the second half of the 12th century, and the parish church of Scheiblingskirchen, documented from 1164 but older.A first-class monument is the principal church (cathedral from 1468 to 1784) of Wiener-Neustadt, with a façade flanked by two towers and three Romanesque basilical naves, an early Gothic choir (1300–30), figured portals, and Baroque furnishings; it contains the tomb of Cardinal Klesl, attributed to G. L. Bernini (1630).
A unique Romanesque monument is the parish church of Schönngrabern, from the first half of the 12th century, its apse exterior covered with Romanesque sculptures depicting cycles drawn from the Bible and apocrypha. At Deutsch-Altenburg the parish church is also from the first half of the 13th century, a three-aisled Romanesque basilica with a Gothic choir from the 14th century. Notable is the church of the ancient town of Mödling, one of the largest *Hallenkirchen*, with Romanesque elements, rebuilt after the Turkish destruction of 1529. Also worthy of mention is the parish church of Zistersdorf (c. 1620), which preserves the Madonna by L. Cranach the Elder. Characteristic monuments of the Turkish era are the many *Wehrkirchen*, i.e., fortified churches. Typical too are the many *Karner* (ossuaries), almost all in Romanesque style, among them those of Tulln (1321), with a figured portal and 15th-century frescoes; that of Mödling (1345), similar to the preceding; that of Deutsch-Altenburg, with a sculpted portal; and many simpler ones, even Gothic.
For the abbeys V. KLOSTERNEUBURG; HEILIGENKREUZ. Joseph II suppressed (1782) the Carthusian monastery of Mauerbach, founded by Frederick the Fair (1313) and rebuilt in Baroque form (1616–31), and the Benedictine abbey of Kleinmariazell (1316–1782), whose Romanesque church was excellently Baroque-ized (now a parish church).
Very popular are some shrines, such as Maria Lanzendorf, which already existed in the 12th century under Leopold V (Maria auf der Haide); it was rebuilt after the Turkish destruction of 1683 by Leopold I, preserving its medieval chapel. At Sollenau is the first transalpine imitation of the Loreto chapel (14th century). From the 16th–17th centuries are the shrines of Maria Ellend and Karnabrunn (Holy Trinity). Extremely popular is the pilgrimage to Sankt Corona (17th century), and that to Maria Enzersdorf, rebuilt in 1730 (Franciscans), also known for the “Romantiker-Friedhof”; not a few of Vienna’s Romantic Catholics, in devotion to the Madonna, wished to be buried there. Finally, Maria Schutz, near the Semmering Pass, rebuilt in 1738.
V. LIFE AND CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS
A first great cultural flowering is noted in the 12th–13th centuries, at the time of the Crusades; another after the founding of the University (1363); the third, most glorious, in the Baroque era, after the
The definitive repression of the Turkish threat (1683). Of this last period of unitary culture, still deeply religious and Christian, VIENNA and all of Austria bear the indelible imprints. On several occasions in history, VIENNA held a primacy in music: at the end of the Middle Ages, the Hofmusikkapelle, Burgkapelle, which still exists (Sängerknaben); in the first half of the 19th century (the “Viennese Classics” such as Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Bruckner, etc.), and in the field of opera and operetta, up to the present day. Theater, much favored by the Court, also flourished in VIENNA. Famous is the Viennese medical school: Gerard Van Swieten, under Maria Theresa; Billroth (1829–1894); Wagner-Jauregg (1857–1940) and others. In VIENNA, the first polytechnic in Europe was erected (1815). The Albertina is the richest collection in the world of drawings and engravings (including papyri, etc.), with more than 600,000 sheets. VIENNA possesses a large number of museums, often of rare importance. The Kunsthistorische Museum, of imperial origin and ownership, has collections from every branch of ancient and modern art, with many priceless pieces, especially in painting. The Kunstgewerbemuseum unites treasures of the fine and applied arts, with professional studies; the museums of technology, folklore (Austrian and foreign), ethnology, arms, antiquities of the city, horology, etc., are extremely rich. The old Hofburg (Imperial Palace), a picturesque complex built between the 14th and 20th centuries, besides being of high historical
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**VI CONGRESS OF VIENNA** – It took place in the years 1814–15 to define certain problems left unresolved by the Peace Treaty of Paris (30 May 1814). Representatives of the governments of England, Prussia, Russia, France, Austria, the German states, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, Denmark, and the Italian states participated.
There was never a plenary assembly; affairs were handled by the representatives of the major powers: Austria, Prussia, Russia, and England. Despite the proposals of the ministers of these powers to isolate France and redraw the map of Europe according to their interests, the skill of Talleyrand enabled France to be included in the diplomatic game of the great powers. An initial attempt to monopolize the work of the future congress by excluding France failed precisely due to Talleyrand’s opposition. Projects to partition Poland and Saxony poisoned the atmosphere, and he, sheltering behind the principle of legitimacy, opposed any designs contrary to French interests, while with no less skill Metternich succeeded in eliminating any consideration for the national and innovative element, which had nonetheless contributed greatly to Napoleon’s defeat. At the conclusion of the work, in opposition to the principle of legitimacy propagated by Talleyrand, the principle of equilibrium prevailed in the definitive arrangement of Europe. Saxony was the only one among the German states not to renounce its alliance with Napoleon, and Prussia sought to annex its territory on this pretext, while Russia wished to reorganize the Polish state into a personal union under the sovereignty of the Tsar. Austria opposed both solutions, but the English government, in order to curb Russian pretensions, was willing to sacrifice Saxony to Prussia, to break the solidarity between Prussia and Russia. The conclusion of the Peace of Ghent between England and the United States (24 Dec. 1814) and the defensive treaty between England, Austria, and France (3 Jan. 1815), aimed at opposing Russian-Prussian claims (to which Bavaria, Hanover, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and Hesse-Darmstadt later adhered), placed the Russian-Prussian coalition in serious difficulty. On 6 March 1815, at the end of a long conference between Austria, France, Russia, Prussia, and England, Metternich received a dispatch from the Austrian consul in Genoa announcing Napoleon’s escape from Elba. On 13 March, Bonaparte was declared by the Congress to be outside the protection of the law, and on 25 March the Treaty of Chaumont (10 March 1814) was renewed, establishing the elimination of Napoleon from Europe and inviting France to adhere to II. On 9 June 1815, the Final Act of the Congress was stipulated: Saxony was preserved to its dynasty, save for some provinces annexed to Prussia; Russia received a part of Poland; Bavaria was united with the Rhenish Palatinate and the Grand Duchy of Würzburg; the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by the union of Luxembourg, Belgium, and Holland; the 36 German states were constituted into a confederation with a Diet seated in Frankfurt am Main, presided over by Austria; Switzerland was enlarged by three cantons (Valais, Neuchâtel, and Geneva) and its neutrality was recognized; Sweden lost Finland, which had been seized by Russia, and in compensation obtained Norway, which had previously been united with Denmark; the latter received the Duchy of Lauenburg, while ceding Swedish Pomerania to Prussia.
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Attas des Wiener Stadtbildes, ibid. 1919; O. Menghin–V. Wanschura, Urgesch. W., ibid. 1924; J. Leixner, Wien (with bibliography), ibid. 1926; H. Riehl, Der St. Stefansdom in W., Munich 1926; E. Tomek, Spaziergänge durch Alt-W., 2 vols., Vienna 1927 and 1948; H. Tietze, W.: Kultur, Kunst u. Gesch., ibid. 1931; H. Sassmann, Wienerisch (linguistics), Munich 1935; E. Tomek, Kirchengesch. Österr., 2 vols., Innsbruck 1936–48 (up to 1648; especially rich for the period of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, with bibliography); Eubel, II, p. 294; III, p. 354; IV, p. 368; V, p. 414; Bildende Kunst in Österr., ed. K. Ginzart, 5 vols., Baden 1936–39, passim; F. Walter, Die Gesch. einer deutschen Grossstadt an der Grenze, 4 vols., Vienna 1940–44; J. Göbel, Stephansdom 1945 (documentation of the destruction of the cathedral), ibid. 1945; R. Till, Wiener Stadtgeschichtschreibung: Resultate u. Probleme, in Wiener Geschichtsbücher, 1947, p. 1 ff.; id., Wiens geschichtl. Stellung in Wirtschaft u. Politik, Vienna 1947; E. Schaffran, Kunstgesch. Österr., ibid. 1948, passim; A. Missong, Heiliges W. Ein Führer durch Wiens Kirchen u. Kapellen, 2nd ed., ibid. 1948 (with extensive bibliography); A. T. Leitch, Vienna gloriosa: Weltstadt der Barock, ibid. 1948; J. Schmitt, W. Kunstdenkmale W., ibid. 1950; E. H. Hassinger, A. Klaar, W. Sztygowskis, Führer durch W., ibid. (1951), with a new scientific method, many plans and sketches, bibliography; K. Öttinger, Das Werden W., ibid. 1951; R. K. Donin, Der Wiener Stefansdom u. seine Gesch., 2nd ed., ibid. 1952; Fr. Kieslinger, Unser Dom: Bemerkungen über sein mittelalterl. Werden u. seine Schöpfer, ibid. 1952 (summary of results achieved during the reconstruction of the cathedral); E. Tomek, Wien, in LThK. X, cols. 872–77; R. Meister, Wiener Universitätsbl., cols. 877–79.
Important innovations also occurred in the reorganization of the Italian states. The Republic of Genoa was suppressed and its territory incorporated into Piedmont, with the succession of the Savoia-Ca-rignano line established in the event of the extinction of the reigning branch; Austria retained Lombardy and also remained in Veneto; the Kingdom of Naples, in which Murat had temporarily been left, reverted to the Bourbons. France had already concluded a first Treaty in Paris on 30 May 1814. It was forced to conclude another, more onerous one (20 Nov. 1815), after the “Hundred Days,” and had to cede certain territories to the Netherlands, Saarlouis and Saarbrücken to Prussia, Landau to Bavaria; a part of Savoy, which had been assigned to it by the first treaty, returned to Sardinia. It also had to pay a heavy war indemnity (fr. 700,000,000); endure for five years the occupation of some border fortresses at its own expense; restore all works of art, books, and documents that had been removed by French occupying troops; and relinquish in favor of England some of its colonial possessions (Tobago and St. Lucia in the Antilles, the Seychelles and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean).
A particularly difficult problem was the reorganization of the Papal States. As early as 1814, in a meeting held in Bologna between Murat and Pius VII, the former had demanded the renunciation in favor of the Kingdom of Naples of Papal territory with the exception of Rome and Lazio. Now, conversely, there was talk of the possibility that the Legations might pass, for life, to Marie Louise, daughter of Francis I of Austria and former Empress of the French, in exchange for Parma and Piacenza, which were to be restored to the Bourbon rulers of Parma. The Pope’s protests led to a compromise involving the former Republic of Lucca, which was refused by Marie Louise of Habsburg, so that this territory was temporarily assigned to Maria Luisa of Bourbon, mother of the young Charles Louis, who, upon the death of Marie Louise, would regain Parma and Piacenza, while Lucca would be annexed to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The territory of the small Republic of San Marino had not been touched during the Napoleonic occupation, and so it remained intact amid the general reshaping of the Italian peninsula.
Pius VII did not adhere to the Final Act; on 14 June he protested against the Austrian troops stationed on the right bank of the Po, against the annexation of Avignon to France, and against the German ecclesiastical principalities, which had been secularized. It was to the credit of the diplomats gathered at the Congress that, before concluding their work, they issued a call for the abolition of the slave trade, deploring this shameful and barbaric traffic in which some of the governments participating in the Congress were involved. In an appendix to this, at the initiative of Tsar Alexander, on 26 Sept. 1815 the rulers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria concluded in Paris the agreement known as the Holy Alliance (v.). - See plates CXLIi-CXLIIi.
GIUSEPPE CONIGLIO