Salzburg

SALZBURG. - Archiepiscopal see, capital of the federal state of the same name in Austria.

I. BEGINNINGS

The Salzburg territory of the ecclesiastical principality extended over a vast part of the Bavarian plain and over the narrow valleys of the Salzach and Saalach rivers, with the lesser high-mountain valleys; the principal riches of this region were mineral salt (Dürnberg above Hallein, Reichenhall), copper and other precious minerals (Kitzbühel, various valleys of the Tauern), gold in the valleys of Rauris and Gastein, and the marble of Adnet, exploited since prehistoric times.

Meanwhile, ever since the Celtic era, on the site of S. there existed the important inhabited nucleus of Petena, later Iuvavum; the river was called Igonta, later Ivarus. Under Roman rule (from 15 B.C.) the territory was for the most part included in the province of Noricum; Iuvavum, a municipium under Claudius, became an administrative seat, without military importance; in the life of St. Severinus (d. 482) it appears under the form Iuvao and had outside the city a monastic church, a "basilica" (chaps. 13 and 14) or "cellula" with some "spiritales" monks; also in nearby Cucullis (today Kuchl) there were faithful (chap. 11); the ancient church of the castrum Cucullis survives, it seems, in the present church on the Georgenberg (St. George). On the other hand, the identification of the priest Maximianus (chap. 24) in "Iovaco" with a martyr Maximus, whose cell is shown at S. in the so-called catacombs, does not appear justified, because that locality stood on the Danube, with a station of the fleet.

After the death of St. Severinus the ancient Iuvavum was largely destroyed by the Heruli (488). Around 500 the region was occupied by the Baiuvarii, and in that century a "castellum superius" situated on the present Nonnberg is recorded. The region, like all of Bavaria, was slowly Christianized by Frankish missionaries.

Around 690-95 St. Rupert (v.) appeared in the country, a missionary bishop who established various "cells," that is, centers of monastic and missionary life; he received from Duke Theodo of Bavaria as a gift the ancient Iuvavum with its castle, and there established his residence, founding a male monastery under the title of St. Peter and a female one on the site of the castle, still in existence (Sankt Peter and Nonnberg [v.]). Theodo moreover obtained from Gregory II (716) the establishment of a permanent ecclesiastical organization in Bavaria, and S. was to be its center; but only St. Boniface, in 739, regulated ecclesiastical relations there by instituting four stable sees: S., Regensburg, Passau (which had already had bishops, at least in passing) and Freising. The first bishop of S. was John (739-45), abbot of Sankt Peter. His successor, St. Virgil (v.), was the true organizer of the diocese (745-84): he built the first cathedral, distinct from the abbey church of St. Peter, and transferred there the body of St. Rupert (774), thenceforth venerated as saint and patron of the diocese and the region. Learned and extremely active, he directed the greater forces of the diocese toward the largely Slavic regions of Carinthia, Styria and Pannonia. In 755 the present name "Salzburg" (salt town) appears for the first time, and the German dukes and kings donated to the bishopric the saltworks of the vicinity.

II. ARCHBISHOPRIC

1. Missionary center (c. 898-950)

From 758 to 821 the diocese was governed by Arno (v.), who on April 20, 798 saw his see elevated to a metropolis by Leo III, with the suffragan sees of Sabiona, later Bressanone (v.), and those in Bavaria existing since 739: Freising, Passau and Regensburg, as well as Neuburg, soon united with Augsburg, which was under Mainz. The school of Sankt Peter flourished: the famous codex of traditions (register of the landed properties of the Church of Salzburg) was composed, and a very great impulse was given to the missions toward the east, especially after the Avar wars. Charlemagne assigned all the immense territories of the Avars to Salzburg as mission lands, and the archdiocese extended as far as the Tisza, while from 811 the Drava formed the boundary with Aquileia; shortly afterward those with Passau were regulated (v. AUSTRIA, II. History of Christianity). Since the extent was immense, a chorepiscopate was established in Carinthia, with its seat at Maria Saal. Under Liuphram (836-859) a missionary center was established beyond the Danube for the Slovaks, at Nitra, the beginning of a politico-religious dispute with the Slavic missionaries who had come from Constantinople (v. CYRIL AND METHODIUS). Adalwin (860-73) received from Louis, king of Germany, the city of Sabaria (today in Hungary) and consecrated many churches in the surrounding area. The mission was most promising when the Magyars seized Pannonia and for a good hundred years devastated half of Germany, part of Italy and the neighboring lands; Archbishop Tietmar (874-907) died in battle against them and the mission was practically destroyed.

2. Medieval ecclesiastical principality; the suffragans (c. 950-1450). - Once the Magyars had been repressed, the archbishops of S. attempted a recovery. Frederick I (958-91) definitively obtained immunity in 984 and in the same year separated the archiepiscopal mensa from the abbatial property; with this the abbey of Sankt Peter passed under its own abbot. Frederick was deserving for his zeal in spreading culture and for the reconstruction of the devastated regions. From as early as 996 S. had its own coinage; in 1026 the archbishop received the title and prerogative of legatus natus, and for this reason the archbishops later wore the cardinal purple. In 1039 the right of the monks of Sankt Peter to elect the archbishop also ceased. Archbishop Baldwin (1041-60) reformed the clergy and the monks and concerned himself greatly with the more distant regions, Carinthia and Styria, founding monasteries, churches, parishes, etc. Gebhard (1066-88), in order to strengthen his political position against the emperors and the other neighboring princes (Bavaria, Austria), built the impregnable fortresses of Hohensalzburg, above the city, of Hohenwerfen, to bar the passes toward the Tauern, and of Friesach in Carinthia, and began the institution of "suffragan" bishops, erecting in 1070 at Gurk (v.) in Carinthia, where there had previously been a monastery of nuns with a great church and vast possessions (v. EMMA), a bishopric. In the theory of the German law of "Eigenkirchen," Gurk was an "Eigenbistum" of S.; the archbishop who had erected and endowed the see appointed and invested the suffragan bishop.

Conrad II (1106-47) also instituted and endowed his own Chapter, under the rule of St. Augustine. During the investiture struggles the archbishops of S. were ordinarily on the side of the popes, and suffered much for it; but they emerged from them more powerful and respected. Eberhard II (1200-46), a partisan of the emperor Frederick II, obtained confirmation of the full political independence of his ecclesiastical principality (20 Apr. 1220) and, following Gebhard's ideas, instituted three other "suffragan" sees: Chiemsee in Bavaria (1217-18), Seckau in Styria (1218) and, in eastern Carinthia, Lavant with residence at Sankt Andrä (1228). Indeed, the bishop of Chiemsee took up residence from as early as 1300 in the city of S. itself (Chiemseehof). Thus, besides the suffragans in the common sense, of Bressanone, Freising, Passau and Regensburg, S. had four suffragans of its own, with full right of election, investiture, etc. This "unicum" remained in force for Chiemsee until its suppression in 1807, and for the others largely until the Austrian Concordat of 1933-34.

From 1366 the archbishops of S. also had the right to mint gold coinage. But because of the political movements of the time, there were more and more often intruded archbishops, who not infrequently were the cause of violent, even armed, conflicts and of decline and considerable internal tensions.

3. Apogee of power and of art (c. 1450-1750)

The emperor Frederick III was able to institute his own bishoprics at Vienna and Wiener Neustadt, something that until then S. and Passau had managed to prevent. The same Frederick then granted in 1481 to the city of S. the rights of a free imperial city, in order to weaken the power of the prince-archbishop. But he did not succeed, because Archbishop Leonard of Keutschach (1495-1519) intervened against these aspirations to independence: the transport in the depths of winter of the most prominent citizens to Radstadt, accompanied by the executioner, and the construction of the great organ on the city fortress ("Stier"), which was to play at 4 in the morning and at 9 in the evening to regulate city life, remained famous; a work that still functions excellently, but plays choral melodies, different each month. Then he strengthened the fortress and also made it a princely residence with the church of St. George, where he had himself portrayed in red marble, blessing the city and the country from on high. He was succeeded by the famous Cardinal Matthäus Lang of Wellenburg (1519-40), who brought his State to new splendor and in 1529 received the title of "primas Germaniae," which has remained with the see to this day. After the Council of Trent there was no lack of reforming synods (1569-1576) and religious life remained flourishing despite Protestant infiltrations.

The new Renaissance spirit led to a rapid and vast renewal of the city and the principality, thanks to the work of three famous prince-archbishops. The first and most debated is Wolf Dietrich of Raitenau (1587-1612), a pupil of the Germanicum in Rome, prince-archbishop at 28, who brought back very deep impressions of Italian life and art. He demolished the grandiose medieval Cathedral down to its foundations (1600) and in 1610 laid the first stone of the new one. He began in the center of S. the construction of an entire ecclesiastical quarter (residence, offices, Chapter Palace, etc.), opened a new cemetery, favored every kind of art, making use of Italian artists. Against Protestant expansion he called in the Capuchins and built several convents for them. In promoting commerce he came into armed conflict ("Salzkrieg") with Maximilian of Bavaria. He was defeated, imprisoned and denounced to Rome (1612). His building ardor had procured him enemies, especially in the Chapter, but he was harmed above all by his relationship with Salome Alt (to whom the Emperor gave the title of Altenau), by whom he had 10 children and for whom he built the castle of Altenau, today Mirabell. A pontifical commissioner, while freeing him from the Bavarian prison of Hohensalzburg, declared him a prisoner of the Holy See, under the surveillance of the new archbishop. Wolf Dietrich lived another 5 years (d. 1617), in strict confinement, yet in sincere penitence. He was followed (1612-19) by Markus Sittikus of Hohenems, who continued his predecessor's constructions with greater success. In 1614 he began the new Cathedral with a different plan, and prepared the future University with the gymnasium (1617).

But the greatest prince of that period is Paris of Lodron (1619-53), who succeeded in maintaining during the Thirty Years' War full peace in his States, indeed in bringing them to true material and spiritual prosperity. In 1628 he was able to complete the exterior construction of the Cathedral and of many other buildings of the city, giving it in part the appearance of a Baroque city. He built new fortifications for greater security, maintaining a modest but well-supplied army. But his greatest glory is the foundation of the Benedictine University of S. (1632) and the establishment of the Benedictine Congregation of S., which included many Bavarian and neighboring abbeys (1641-1808).

When the missions among the Protestants, ever tenacious in their Alpine valleys, proved vain, Leopold of Firmian (1727-44), in order to rid himself of them, on 31 Oct. 1731 exiled them from the State, an act that then alarmed all of Europe; more than 25 thousand people left the country to move largely to Prussia and Hesse.

4. Decline (1750-1816)

S. did not manage to escape the Enlightenment and the caesaropapism of Joseph II, and Jerome Colloredo (1772-1803), who was deeply imbued with it, introduced many "reforms," abolishing processions, limiting external piety, suppressing confraternities and charitable works, even forbidding Nativity scenes, to the great sorrow of the people.

With the advent of Napoleon, Colloredo fled (1800) before the French, never to return. He died in 1812 in Vienna. But from as early as 1786 he had had to conclude a Convention with Joseph II (19 April), by virtue of which the jurisdiction of S. in the Austrian territories ceased, and the Emperor (with Rome's consent) reduced the Salzburg "suffragans" of Gurk, Seckau, Lavant and the new bishopric of Leoben to suffragans of S. in the ordinary sense of the word. S., however, retained the right of appointing the bishops of those sees.

In 1803, with the great German secularization, the thousand-year-old ecclesiastical principality of S. also came to an end. By the Peace of Lunéville its territory was awarded to the Archduke of Tuscany with the title of Electorate (Kurfürstentum). In 1805 it passed to Austria, which lost it in 1809. Meanwhile the cathedral Chapter was also suppressed (1807). The Bishop of Chiemsee held the spiritual administration of the archdiocese. From 1809 to 1810 S. was under the French, then passed to Bavaria (1810-16), which abolished the right of coinage and the University.

III. THE MODERN ARCHDIOCESE (FROM 1825 ONWARDS)

With the Congress of Vienna (1816), the territory of the principality of S. passed definitively under Austria, though some important parts such as Reichenhall, Berchtesgaden and the "Flachgau," the plain beyond the Salzach, remained with Bavaria. Since 1918 it has been one of the federal states of the Austrian Republic. A reorganization of ecclesiastical relations was also necessary.

With the bulls Ex imposto (2 May 1818) and *Ubi primum** (7 March 1825) the archdiocese of S. was again erected, defined and endowed. A new metropolitan Chapter was instituted (1825) and the first archbishop was appointed in the person of Ag. Gruber, the celebrated catechist (1823-35), who was succeeded by Frederick Prince of Schwarzenberg (1836-1850). The bishoprics of Trent (suffragan of S. from 1825) and of Brixen (suffragan since 708) were subjected directly to the Holy See in 1920, and in 1924 that of Lavant, which had passed to Yugoslavia in 1918. With the Austrian Concordat of 1933 the two suffragans of Gurk and Seckau are appointed directly by the Holy See according to common law, and to the Chapter of S. there remains only the right to elect, on a ternate proposal of the Pope, the new archbishop of S., to be confirmed afterwards by the Pontiff.

The passage (1938-45) of Austria to Germany brought to the archdiocese of S. all the difficulties created by the Nazi regime; and the bombs did the rest: the dome of the Cathedral and other churches were destroyed, religious works suppressed. To be remembered as a sign of religious recovery are the "Österr. Borromäuswerk" (1946) for the Catholic press, the Permanent Commission of the Austrian episcopate for the liturgy, with its seat in the Liturgical Institute at the abbey of St. Peter (1947), the "Österr. Institut für Caritaswissenschaft" for the preparation of laypeople for social work, and the rebirth of the Catholic University.

The present archdiocese has 9,715 sq km, with 456,000 inhabitants, of whom 380,000 are Catholics (the city of S. alone now numbers more than 100,000 inhabitants). It is divided into 19 deaneries with 200 parishes. It has well-organized major and minor Seminaries. There is also the Theological Faculty. S. is also known as the place of origin of the Society of St. Peter Claver for the African missions.

IV. UNIVERSITY, CULTURAL INSTITUTES

In the abbey of Sankt Peter (v.) sacred and secular studies always flourished; consequently it exercised a continuous and very notable influence on the spiritual life of the city and of the ancient principality. The same holds true, with regard to the abbey of Nonnberg, for the female sex. In the Middle Ages there was also the cathedral school. But the glory of baroque S. in the field of schooling is its Benedictine University, which arose, after many difficulties, with the definitive help of Prince-Archbishop Paris von Lodron and the passionate collaboration of the Benedictines of S. and of Bavaria. In 1617 a gymnasium first arose; in 1620 (March 9) came the imperial diploma; in 1625 (Dec. 17) the pontifical confirmation of Urban VIII; in 1623 the opening of the University. Around 1700 the famous "Kollegienkirche" arose next to the University, a baroque creation of the first order. Noteworthy is the fact that the University of S. was the only Catholic university in which history too had a practical and universal teaching. Bavaria suppressed it immediately (Dec. 24, 1810); in its place, however, a kind of lyceum continued, until 1850, when the Faculty of Theology was re-established.

Since 1884 the "Kath. Universitätsverein" has existed for the founding and endowment of a complete Catholic University. After a halt during and following the First World War, the Nazi period destroyed the work that was close to realization. Now everything has resumed; the Faculty of Philosophy and various higher Institutes have been added. Since 1931 the "Salzburger Hochschulwochen" have been held at S., international university summer courses, very renowned. At S. there is also the "Studienbibliothek" with more than 1200 mss., more than 4600 incunabula and more than 100,000 volumes. Since 1880 there is also the well-known international institute "Mozarteum" for music. Indeed, at S. the great musician W. A. Mozart (b. in 1756) was born, and he began his career with the support of the prince-archbishop. The "festival" (Salzburger Festspiele) has had world fame since 1917, resumed in 1925, during the summer season, with grandiose performances, especially dramatic, on the parvis of the Cathedral.

V. ART

Today S. presents itself at first sight as a Baroque city: it is also called the German Rome because of its many domes, dominated by that of the Cathedral. This is the principal sacred monument of the city. It is dedicated to Sts. Rupert and Virgil. After the primitive construction begun by St. Virgil (774) was destroyed, there was during the 12th century a reconstruction in grandiose Romanesque forms, influenced by Saxony, with a great atrium between two square towers, three internal naves with a transept and two other round towers, an octagonal dome and two other small towers with staircases in the presbytery. Gothic renovations and interior embellishments followed: grandiose altars, sculptures and works of art of every kind, so that the cathedral of S. was among the most grandiose in Germany. Gravely damaged by fire in 1598, it was razed to the ground from 1600 onward. Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, prince-archbishop, summoned Vincenzo Scamozzi, who drew up a first grandiose plan inspired by St. Peter's in Rome and the Gesù (1606-10), but in 1610, when Wolf Dietrich laid the first stone, the plan had already been simplified. His successor, Markus Sittikus, had Santino Solari draw up a third plan, executed from 1614 to 1628. The two bell towers were completed in 1655. The facade is of white marble, all the rest of the exterior of grey stone (length 100 m., width 70, dome 72 m.). The exterior is pure Renaissance, the interior early Baroque, with rich furnishings by various artists. In the presbytery there are ten archiepiscopal tombs from 1619 to 1771 and a grandiose 18th-century organ. From the old Cathedral comes the 12th-century baptismal font; the Treasury contains relics of every age.

The cathedral square with the arcades of G. A. Dario (1600) forms a grandiose quadriporticus, with the monument to the Immaculate Conception (1771), by Hagenauer, in the middle. Beside it stands the sumptuous residence (now the seat of the government) of the prince-archbishops, built on the site of the ancient one of c. 1120 and renovated in the 16th century (from 1595 to 1619, with additions in 1788-92), which as a whole attests the power of the ancient principality. On the square in front stands the Residenz fountain (1631-61), by Tommaso di Garona, the most beautiful Renaissance fountain north of the Alps.

Another residence was the fortress of Hohensalzburg, begun as a castle in 1077, largely rebuilt by Leonhard von Keutschach, with palace, church and all its appurtenances. The princely rooms ("Fürstenzimmer", especially the "goldene Stube") reveal great taste and refinement; a unicum is the majolica stove of 1501, of which each individual tile has a plastic quality of its own. The fortress, enlarged in the 17th and 18th centuries, dominates the city with its vast bulk. The residence of the "suffragan" of Chiemsee was the Chiemseehof, a very large building, medieval and Baroque, but afterwards much transformed, now another seat of the government. Notable is the "Hofapotheke", the official pharmacy, with interior and furnishings from 1500 to 1700. The whole city is full of other secular monuments of the princes, such as fountains, riding schools, horse baths, palaces, bourgeois and merchants' houses, with arcaded courtyards, etc.

Of the many churches, that of the Franciscans should above all be remembered, until 1583 the parish church of the city: it arose in the 8th century, was rebuilt in the 13th century in heavy Romanesque forms, and was dedicated in 1221. The Romanesque choir was replaced tuted in 1408-32 ca. by the master Hans Stethaimer with a luminous Gothic choir, in the form of a "Hallenkirche", with very tall pillars, in the form of palms, and an ambulatory of grandiose effect. The bell tower is from 1486-98. For the high altar the greatest artist of the age, Michael Pacher, was summoned, but of his work (1486-98) only the statue of the Madonna remained; the rest was replaced by the Baroque altar of J. B. Fischer v. Erlach (1709-11). Worthy of note is the cemetery, near the church of St. Sebastian, by A. Bertoletto (1595-1600), with arcades around it, and very many monuments; in its midst the domed mausoleum of Wolf Dietrich.

The Baroque appearance of S. comes from the many domed churches in this style. At first Gaspare Zugalli built a great deal there, with the help of other Italian artists; above all by him are the churches of St. Erhard (1685-89) and St. Cajetan (1685-1700), very characteristic, in Italian Baroque forms. Then follows the period of J. B. Fischer v. Erlach, imperial architect of Vienna. By him are the church of the Most Holy Trinity (1694-1702), with the two wings of the Paggeria and of the Seminary; his major work at S. is the "Kollegienkirche", that is, the University church (1694-1707) dedicated to the Immaculate Conception. Less grandiose is the construction of the churches of St. John, of the hospital (1699-1714) and of the Ursulines (1699-1705). All these churches are decorated by various local and foreign artists, with much taste.

Among the various castles, mention should be made of Mirabell, built in 1606 by Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, rebuilt by J. L. v. Hildebrand in 1721-27, with a grandiose park; after the fire of 1818 it was reworked by P. Nobile. The internal staircase has been preserved, with the celebrated putti in cast lead by R. Donner (1726). The castle of Hellbrunn (1613-15) built by the architect of the Cathedral, S. Solari, famous above all for its various water games (1615-19); the open-air theater, for Italian comedies, and the "Nonatsschlössl" built in a month. By the already mentioned

J. B. Fischer v. Erlach is also the castle of Klessheim, of very sober, almost classical forms, while the castle of Leopoldskron (1736) is simpler and more intimate. In the city one would still have to mention the Town Hall of 1407, reworked in 1616, and the tunnel beneath the Mönchsberg, the "Neutor" (123 m.) of the beginning of the 18th century.

Outside the city of S. one cannot omit mentioning some of the most renowned works of art. Mattsee, founded in 777, a Romanesque collegiate church with Baroque decoration; Tamsweg, in the Lungau, with a church in honor of St. Leonard, full of works of art (medieval glass paintings, frescoes of the 14th and 15th centuries, and canvases by the family of painters Lederwasch, which counts at least 18 masters over two centuries). Nearby is Mariapfarr with other celebrated frescoes in the parish church. Among the Marian sanctuaries the most frequented is that of Maria Plain, near S., a church by A. Dario (1671-74); for the coronation of the statue W. A. Mozart wrote the well-known "Krönungsmesse". - See plate CV.

1948; V. Redlich, Die Salzb. Benediktiner-Universität als Kulturerscheinung, in H. Tausch, Benedikt. Mönchtum in Österr., Vienna 1949; F. Hagen-Dempf, Die Kollegienkirche in Salzb., ibid. 1949; H. Decker, Salzb. Flügelaltar des Veit Stoss, ibid. 1950; L. Santifaller, Forschungen u. Vorarbeiten zur «Austria Sacra». I, part 1, Vienna 1951; A. Riegl, Salzb. Stellung in der Kunstgesch., ibid. s. a.; A. Schmiedbauer, Salzb. Gestalt und Antlitz, Salzburg 1952. The most specific publication for art are the volumes of the Österr. Kunsttopographie, publ. by the Superintendency of the arts (Vienna). For S. the following vols. come into consideration: 17 (1918), for prehistory; 9, 13, 16 (1912, '13, '14) for the city itself; 10, 11, 20, 22, 25, 28 (1913, '16, '27, '28, '34, '40) for the country and its districts (official, complete, critical publication).

Giuseppe Löw