JUGOSLAVIA

YUGOSLAVIA. – A state in southern Europe comprising the central and north-western parts of the Balkan region, together with more or less extensive strips of the adjacent Alpine, Subalpine and Pannonian zones.

CONTENTS:

I. Geography

II. History

III. Legal status of the Church

IV. Ecclesiastical organization

V. Liturgy

VI. Literature

VII. Art

VIII. Educational system.

I. GEOGRAPHY

The Federativna Narodna Republika Jugoslavija (F.N.R.J.) is composed of six republics, of which Serbia includes two autonomous provinces: Vojvodina and Kosovo-Metohija. The official census of 15 March 1948 is as follows:

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**YUGOSLAVIA** (Paris 1950)

- King of Croatia, 11th-century sculpture preserved in the baptistery of St John – Split.

| Population | 1940 | 1950 |
| Federal Republics | 1,000,000 | 1,500,000 |
| Autonomous regions | 1,000,000 | 1,500,000 |

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Yugoslavia comprises territories that differ widely in physical, climatic, phytogeographical and economic characteristics: the rugged limestone massifs (karst) of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina contrast with the fertile plains along the Danube and its tributaries, just as the extreme Alpine foothills have nothing in common with the basins of the Vardar and Morava, where small hollows alternate with narrow gorges; a special place is occupied by the Adriatic littoral, fringed with islands and rich in ports, yet cut off from the interior by the high rampart of the Dinaric Alps. More than four-fifths of the country is occupied by mountains and hills, where settlement remains rather sparse; the remainder consists of valley floors and lowlands, chiefly in the northern and north-eastern sectors. Over three-quarters of the territory drains into the Danube; a continental character is also evident in the climate, which shows marked temperature ranges, the winters growing colder and the summers hotter, with scantier precipitation as one approaches the Pannonian basin. Even here the coastal belt and Istria stand out from the rest of Yugoslavia by their more or less distinctly Mediterranean character.

The population, according to the official census (15.8 million), is far from homogeneous: in addition to the four main Slav groups—Serbs (41.5%), Croats (24%), Slovenes (9%), Macedonians (5.1%, ethnically Bulgarian)—the census lists two further Slav groups, the Orthodox Montenegrins (2.7%) and the Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina (5.1%, of whom the former are ethnically Serbian and the latter Croatian). The minorities (12.6%) are as follows: Albanians (4%), Hungarians (3.1%), Vlachs (in Serbia: 0.7%), Turks (0.6%), Italians (0.5%), Slovaks (0.5%), Gypsies (0.5%), Romanians (in Vojvodina: 0.4%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Germans (0.4%), Czechs (0.2%), Ukrainians (0.2%), Russians (0.1%), Jews (0.04%), Poles (0.03%), etc. Housing shortages increased after 1945, especially because of the mass expulsion of Germans, but they have eased somewhat with regard to Italians following the annexation of Istria to Yugoslavia. Of the towns, only five exceed 100,000 inhabitants (in addition to those listed in the table, Subotica, with 113,000), and only seven others have more than 50,000.

Slightly less than one-third of Yugoslavia is covered by forests (Carniola, Styria, Slavonia, the Dinaric region, Bosnia), roughly the same proportion (30.8%) being given over to arable land, and about one-quarter to natural meadows and pastures. Agriculture, livestock-raising and forestry are the principal occupations of the population. The first yields cereals (more maize than wheat), potatoes, fruit (plums and apples), wine (Dalmatia) and industrial crops (tobacco, sugar beet, hemp, hops, etc.), while livestock is equally varied, with sheep (6.4 million head), pigs (2.8 million) and cattle (2.5 million) predominating. The forests (7.8 million hectares) represent another important source of income, supporting a whole series of thriving industries (sawmills, paper mills, furniture-making, distilleries, etc.). Among the principal mineral resources are coal, iron (Bosnia) and copper (Serbia), but there is also oil (Croatia and Montenegro), as well as lead, zinc, bauxite, manganese, etc. Hydropower potential is also considerable. Industry, still disproportionate to the country’s potential, has nevertheless made notable progress, especially in the metallurgical-mechanical sector; the most active branches are those processing foodstuffs. Communications (11,200 km of railways) await a decisive impetus that will exploit the country’s excellent position at the intersection of the great north–south (Pannonia–Moravia–Aegean) and east–west (Sava–Danube) routes.

II. HISTORY

With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Sabor (the Croatian Diet) dissolved, by act of 29 October 1918, the historical and legal ties that until then had bound Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia to Austria and Hungary, proclaiming on their respective territories the State of the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. A group of politicians, the Narodno Vijeće, acting on a delegation from the Sabor that was not entirely constitutional or parliamentary, effected the union of this new state with Serbia and Montenegro (1 December 1918) under the Karageorgević dynasty.

The new formation, known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (SHS), was later internationally recognized by the Treaty of Versailles, despite the protest sent by the Croatian people to the Peace Conference. The drafting and promulgation of the Vidovdan Constitution (28 June 1921) failed to reconcile the initial Serb-Croat conflict, which instead intensified. Alongside the demands of the Macedonians and Montenegrins, the Croats, seeing their solemnly agreed commitments violated by the Serbs (Corfu Declaration of 20 July 1917), felt their age-old religious and national aspirations frustrated and continued to reject the idea of state coexistence with the Serbs. The Slovenes, by contrast, were less hostile to collaboration with the Serbs. The Croatian leader Stjepan Radić sought to bring the issue to its true forum, namely the League of Nations. The misunderstanding of international circles led him in 1925 to attempt collaboration with Belgrade. On 20 June 1928, a Serb deputy shot and killed two Croatian deputies in Parliament and wounded Radić, who later died (8 August). This was followed by the abrogation of the Constitution, the renaming of the state to J., and King Alexander’s establishment of a dictatorial regime (1929). After the king’s assassination in Marseilles (9 October 1934), regency was assumed by Prince Paul. In March 1941, following the coup d’état by General Simović aimed at opposing the Tripartite Pact, the heir apparent, Prince Peter, was proclaimed king. In April 1941, the collapse of the Yugoslav army before the Axis forces and the Croatian uprising led to the political and legal disintegration of J. The artificial organism dissolved into its constituent elements. The Croats restored the Independent State of Croatia. After the Second World War, the leader of the Yugoslav Communist Party, J. Broz Tito, proclaimed on 29 November 1945 the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia (F.N.R.J.). Hostile anti-communist currents were partly suppressed during the partisan struggle and partly silenced after the war’s end. In the course of 1948, the Yugoslav communist regime entered into sharp conflict with the Cominform and the government of the U.S.S.R., which exerted strong pressure on J. to bring it into line. The clash between the U.S.S.R. and J. pushed the latter to align its foreign policy with Western powers, while not deviating from the fundamental internal policies of Eastern European communist regimes.

For the history prior to 1918, V. CROATIA; MACEDONIA; MONTENEGRO; SERBIA; SLOVENIA.

III. LEGAL CONDITIONS OF THE CHURCH

With the founding of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (1918), the problem of Catholics—who constituted nearly forty percent of the entire population—came to the fore. Negotiations with the Holy See were initiated as early as 1922 to conclude a Concordat, which was finally signed on 25 July 1935 by Cardinal Secretary of State Pacelli and the Yugoslav minister of Justice and Religious Affairs, Auer. However, due to opposition from the so-called Orthodox Church, the Yugoslav government did not proceed to ratify the Concordat. The legal status of the Church in the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia is outlined in Article 25 of the Constitution, in force since 1946, which states: “Freedom of conscience and freedom of religion are guaranteed to citizens.” The Church (not only the Catholic Church) is separated from the state. Religious communities whose teaching does not oppose the Constitution are free to exercise their religious functions and to conduct their worship. Religious schools for the training of clergy are permitted but remain under general state supervision. Any abuse of the Church and religion for political purposes, or any organization of a political nature based on religion, is prohibited. The state may provide material assistance to religious communities.

In reality, the principle of religious freedom affirmed in the article must be understood in the context of other constitutional provisions that in various ways contradict it, and above all must be interpreted in light of the facts. These clearly demonstrate that the principle of separation proclaimed in the constitutional charter has, from the outset of the new Republic, been transformed into a regime of persecution.

The personal freedom of ecclesiastics and religious is continually threatened and violated. The trial and conviction of Archbishop A. Stepinac of Zagreb to hard labor in October 1946 was a notorious case. Yet he is not the only victim. Bishop P. Čule of Mostar has also been sentenced to imprisonment. Bishop G. Rožman of Ljubljana and Archbishop G. Šarić of Sarajevo, exiled from their homelands, are unable to return to their sees. The apostolic administrator of Banja Luka, Bishop Čekada, has been expelled from the territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which includes that episcopal see. The remaining bishops, now reduced from nineteen to eight, are systematically prevented from contacting their faithful. In the first months of 1950, the number of priests arrested exceeded four hundred. Moreover, government authorities interfere in the internal life of the Church, claiming, for example, the right to intervene in the appointment of bishops and the provision of all ecclesiastical offices. In many dioceses, parish registers have been confiscated, and authorities refuse to issue certificates of baptism, marriage, etc., even when these are required within the borders of the Republic. Many major and minor seminaries have been occupied or confiscated. The government has supported or even inspired secessionist movements within the clergy, such as the Promoting Secretariat of Slovenian Priests, adherents of the Liberation Front, whose official bulletin has been condemned by the Holy See.

The condition of religious education is extremely grave. In state schools, religious instruction is formally abolished in the upper grades and practically suppressed in the lower grades. Between 1945 and 1947, all Catholic elementary and secondary schools were also suppressed. The condition of the Catholic press is dire, as all its printing houses have been confiscated.

Catholic associations no longer exist; they were suppressed by the bishops themselves as soon as it became known that the OZNA (secret police) had been ordered to compile lists of members of Catholic societies, which was clearly a sign of persecution. Similarly, Catholic charitable works, including the well-known Caritas of Zagreb, have been suppressed. Many nuns have been expelled from hospitals and care institutions, often properties that belonged to them.

Already on 20 Sept. 1945, in a collective letter to the faithful, the bishops complained, among other things, of the forced expropriation of Church property without any compensation whatsoever. The application of the agrarian reform to ecclesiastical properties in the years 1945–46, accompanied by the suppression of every government grant or municipal contribution, impoverished the parishes to the point of making it difficult to support the priests and impossible to rebuild churches damaged or destroyed during the war, or even to replenish them with sacred furnishings that had been plundered or lost. Seminaries, where not suppressed, and episcopal tables were reduced to the most dire poverty. Enormous taxes are sometimes imposed on ecclesiastical buildings and properties, making payment impossible; hence the pretext for driving out priests and religious and confiscating the few remaining goods. The confiscation of religious houses has continued unabated throughout these years.

They constituted almost forty per cent of the entire population. Negotiations with the Holy See were already begun in 1922 with a view to concluding a Concordat, which was signed only on 25 July

As regards the same freedom of worship, it must be recalled that many churches have been closed or turned into people’s houses. In Herzegovina Catholic inhabitants have been violently deported from their villages, where the churches were destroyed, to be transferred to regions inhabited by heterodox populations, where no church exists and where priests have not been permitted to follow their faithful. Moreover, owing to the killing, imprisonment and exile of many priests, the exercise of worship has become impossible in a large number of churches, especially in Croatia.

The sacrament of Matrimony is not spared from anti-religious pressure. In the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia civil marriage is obligatory, and only after it may the religious rite be performed. It is not rare for the contracting parties, after the civil marriage, to be urged not to perform the religious ceremony, under the insinuation and open threat that the regime could not have confidence in those who insisted on having the sacred rite. The other Sacraments—Baptism and Confirmation—and attendance to the sick are also the object of this intimidatory campaign.

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is the only one among the nations of Eastern Europe under communist rule that maintains diplomatic relations with the Holy See.

IV. ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION

The ecclesiastical organization of Yugoslavia comprises 21 dioceses, listed here according to the 1951 Pontifical Yearbook:

1. Immediately subject to the Holy See

Archdioceses: Antivari, Bar; Belgrade, Beograd; Zara. Dioceses: Cattaro, Kotor; Fiume; Lavant, Maribor, Marburg; Lesina, Hvar; Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Laibach; Ragusa, Dubrovnik; Scopia, Skoplje, Üsküb; Sebenico, Šibenik; Spalato, Split; Macarsca, Makarska; Veglia, Krk.

2. Metropolitan

a) Vrhbosna, Sarajevo, with the suffragans: Banjaluka, Mostar (with the united title of Duvno) and with the perpetual administration of the united sees of Marcana and Trebigne; b) Zagreb, Zagreb, Agram, with the suffragans: Crisio, Križevci, Kőrös, Kreutz (for Catholics of the Byzantine rite), Segna, Senj, Zengg, with the perpetual administration of Modrussa, Sirmio, Srijem (with the united title of Bosnia, Diakovar, Djakovo).

3. Bishoprics

Parenzo and Pola (united sees) are suffragan to Gorizia and Gradisca in Italy.

4. Apostolic Administrations

Bačka; Yugoslav Banat.

V. LITURGY

In Yugoslavia there have existed and still persist several liturgical differences concerning the rites themselves and the sacred languages. Besides the Byzantine-Slav rite, in use—with ethnic and liturgical variations—among the dissident “Orthodox” and the Greek-Catholics, among the Roman-Catholics, especially the Croats, there are not a few originalities and liturgical varieties. The majority of Croats belong to the Roman-Latin rite, but from the time of SS. Cyril (d. 869) and Methodius (d. 885) the Roman-Slav or Glagolitic rite also took root among them, spreading, over the centuries, with varying fortunes and intensity almost everywhere where Croat Catholics lived.

In the Roman-Slav rite the ceremonies of the Roman rite are carried out in the Croatian recension of the ecclesiastical Paleo-Slavonic language, written in Glagolitic characters (v. SCRITTURA). This rite is now practised in the dioceses of Segna and Veglia (except the Cathedral), in many parishes of the Dalmatian dioceses and in the Croatian province of the Third Order Regular of St Francis. In the final protocol of the Concordat with Yugoslavia of 25 July 1935, the Holy See confirmed the use of Glagolitic “in the extent and forms recognized by the Popes Leo XIII and Pius X” and “did not oppose” the bishops’ permitting the extension “in parishes of Slavic tongue... where this corresponds to the unanimous desire of the faithful.” The Concordat, however, was not ratified. Pius XI approved (9 March 1927) the new edition of the Roman-Slav Missal in Latin characters; only in the Canon is the old Glagolitic script still preserved. Glagolitic priests recite the Roman Breviary in Latin.

As regards the Roman-Latin rite, the following particularities are to be noted: 1) the diocese of Zagreb from its beginnings (1094) until 1800 had its own rite, with interesting liturgical books; some remnants of the rite still survive here and there; 2) from time immemorial in several Croatian dioceses the Epistle and Gospel were sung in Croatian at Solemn Masses, and moreover the Croatian version of the Roman Ritual, translated by B. Kašić in 1640 and published by the S. Congregation of Propaganda Fide, was in use. Benedict XV (17 Apr. 1921) permitted these two liturgical usages to be extended to all Croatian and Slovenian dioceses. The new official Croatian version of the Roman Ritual appeared in Zagreb (1929) and the Slovenian in Ljubljana (1932).

As regards the same freedom of worship, it must be recalled that many churches have been closed or turned into people’s houses. In Herzegovina Catholic inhabitants have been violently deported from their villages, where the churches were destroyed,

VI. LITERATURE

I. Croatian Literature

Croatian civilization from its origins received a Christian imprint that has shaped the entire national and politico-cultural physiognomy; hence literature, as part of its general culture, reflects the religious sentiment deeply rooted in the soul of the people.

The beginnings of literature among the Croats are traced to the activity of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who in the 9th century invented the Slavic script (Glagolitic) and conferred literary dignity upon an ancient Macedonian dialect, generally called Old Church Slavonic. The activity of the Slav apostles was continued among the South Slavs by their disciples when they were expelled from Moravia. Other contemporary influences, particularly for ancient Croatian literature, probably came from Macedonia through what is now Montenegro (the Croatian scholar V. Jagić, a noted Slavist [1838–1923], devoted special attention to Cyrillo-Methodian questions, and his works are fundamental for these problems). The transition from Old Church Slavonic to the national Croatian language began to be felt as early as the 12th century; soon various prayer manuals were translated into the pure vernacular.

The Baška Inscription (Baščanska ploča, c. 1100) is perhaps the oldest monument in the national Croatian language.

Contemporaneously with this activity of translations, the first anonymous Croatian writers appear.

It should be noted that Croatian literature up to the literary renaissance is written in three dialects: Čakavian, Kajkavian, and Štokavian (the three Croatian dialects are characterized by the interrogative pronoun “what”: ča, kaj, and što), and therefore has a regional character (Croatian littoral with Istria, Dalmatia, Ragusa, Bosnia, Slavonia, and northern Croatia). Religious poetry, written chiefly in the Čakavian dialect and in Latin characters, is linked to the Dalmatian-Ragusan period of Croatian literature and then to that of the other regions. Three factors in particular determined its development: the legacy of Croatian-Glagolitic literature, folk poetry, and foreign influences, chiefly Italian and classical. One of the most interesting figures of this period is Marko Marulić of Split (1450–1524), philosopher, poet, theologian, painter, historian, a typical representative of authentic Christian universality. His Judith marks the birth of artistic Croatian literature; it is an epic work of a heroic-religious character, inspired by the defense of the Christian world against the Turks. In addition, under the name of Marcus Marullus, he wrote several works in Latin, with which he transcended the modest boundaries of his homeland; the poet’s chief effort is directed toward teaching Christian virtues.

Although the poets of the 16th century approached the joys of worldly life in their pastoral compositions (P. Zoranić, Mountain Echoes; P. Hektorović, Fishing; N. Nalješković in his poetry; M. Držić in his dramas, Uncle Maroje; A. Lucić in The Slave Girl), they not only tempered their somewhat light view of life with a patriotic and social conscience but, overcoming their own amorous disappointments, spiritualized their poetry in the end, turning it toward the infinite goodness of God.

The most notable writer of this time is the Benedictine Mavro Vetranović (1482–1576), who in his ecclesiastical dramas, religious poems, and especially in the poem Pilgrim treats didactic-moral themes, allegorically explaining Christian truths and the mysteries of faith.

The subjects most frequently treated in Croatian literature of the Catholic Restoration were the vanity of earthly life and the process by which the sinner must overcome himself to regain lost grace. Particularly suitable examples for such themes were the Prodigal Son of the Bible (M. Magdalenić), the penitent Magdalene (S. Djordjić), the penitential psalms (S. Budinić), the Four Last Things (G. Jurjević), and Christian virtues in general (Kavanjin and others). Other poets of this period intensified the national-patriotic work of awakening consciousness, language, and literature (B. Kašić, a Jesuit and author of the first Croatian grammar [1604]; J. Mikalja) and preached crusades against the Turks (Vl. Menčetić, P. Zrinski). But the Catholic Restoration, in addition to the program laid down by the Council of Trent—aimed at impressing a Christian vision on all public and private life—imposed on the Croats the difficult task of bringing the Orthodox Balkans, and possibly all of Orthodox Russia, closer to the Roman Church, and thus uniting all Slavs into one Catholic family; thus there arose an abundant literature dealing with the Eastern Question (J. Križanić, A. Kaniž). But the man who best embodied this period is Ivan Gundulić (1588–1638 of Ragusa), the greatest poet of old Croatian literature; he composed works of profound religious inspiration, pervaded by a sense of the emptiness of worldly joys (The Penitent Son), the vanity of earthly glory, and the struggle against the Turks (Osman), surpassing all his predecessors and contemporaries with his spontaneous inspiration and vigorous dedication, enlivened by the dynamism of sincere feeling. In this noble endeavor the Franciscans of Bosnia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia distinguished themselves particularly (S. Matijević, P. Posilović, L. Ibršimović, I. Bandulović, I. Ančić), writers of works of Christian edification, among whom the foremost place is held by Fra Matija Divković (1553–1631), with his popular tales of a didactic-religious character, written in pure vernacular, aimed at keeping alive the faith of their ancestors during the painful period of Turkish slavery; Fra Andrija Kačić-Miošić (1704–1760), poet and philosopher, who in a felicitous collection of popular poetry wished to present a golden legend of the heroism of the Slavic peoples (above all the Croats) in their centuries-old struggle against the Crescent.

The literary and politico-cultural rebirth of the Croats, already promoted by P. R. Vitezović, historian and poet (1632–1713), and completed in the first half of the 19th century through the efforts of T. Brezovački, P. Štos, I. Derkos, J. Drašković and L. Gaj, aimed at merging the various provincial literatures and establishing the national unity of all Croatian ethnic regions (Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia, Bačka), thereby laying the foundations of modern and contemporary Croatian artistic literature, was a movement consonant with Christian principles. The poet who best interpreted this organic programme for the attainment of a vigorous spiritual community of his people was Ivan Mažuranić (1814–90), author of the heroic poem The Death of Smail-aga Čengić, a true jewel of Croatian literature; it is a poem steeped in the liveliest religious feeling: its author saw in Christianity the solution to metaphysical, moral and social problems. Among the great contemporaries of Mažuranić (D. Demetar, A. Nemčić, S. Vraz, M. Bogović, L. Botić, G. Martić, Preradović), Preradović excelled for the depth of his thought and feeling and for the plasticity of his style; in the poem The First Men he expressed his philosophical-religious ideas, and in his other poems he developed his patriotism into Pan-Slavism, in order to arrive—according to his optimistic vision—at universal Christian brotherhood. The creator of the Croatian historical novel, A. Šenoa (1838–81), although he sometimes substitutes romantic fancy for pure Christian belief, nevertheless remained attached to the traditional faith of his ancestors, enthusing over ideal figures of priests and extolling religion as the guardian of truth and humanitarian spirit. After Šenoa’s death, a pleiad of notable Croatian realists follows, who offer a varied and interesting panorama of their homeland: Ks. S. Gjalski, dubbed the ‘Turgenev of Croatia,’ describes the petty nobility of his native province; E. Kumičić and V. Novak, realists and romantics at once, recount the struggles between patriarchal local life, morally pure, and the dangerous spread of political passions and anti-national tendencies; J. Kozarac, a keen observer, is concerned with the moral torpor of rich and fertile Slavonia; A. Kovačić and J. Leskovar depict the life of the bourgeois classes, both urban and rural. Among Muslim writers, Safvet beg Bašagić and Edhem Mulabdić stand out. At the end of the 19th century there rises

The rebellious figure of S. S. Kranjčević (1865–1908): this restless poet of universal sorrow, who opened the way “beyond good and evil,” remains in a certain sense a Christian spirit. After the poetry of freedom of Harambašić, the artistry of Matoš and Vidrić, and the dramas and novels of Ogrizović, Begović, Vojnović, Šimunović, Krleža, and Cesarec—all marked by religious indifference and by a fervent nationalism (or socialism)—the first decades of the 20th century saw the emergence of Bishop A. Mahnić, the literary critics Lj. Maraković and P. Grgec, who sought to stem anti-religious currents by founding journals (Hrvatska Straša, Leič, Hrvatska Prosjekta) and rallying numerous young Croatian writers to strengthen the Catholic spirit in all spheres of national life. Gjuro Arnold, who in the struggle between modernists and “conservatives” openly declared for a Christian culture, is a poet distinguished by the spontaneity of his affective lyric; to the same group belongs the priest J. Hranilović, a poet of simple and sincere sentiments, matched by clear versification. A convert, Marin Sabić, though emerging from Kranjčević’s school, later turned to mysticism: his sincerity is moving, especially when he sings of quiet family life. Religious and patriotic sentiments are central to the poetry of the Croatian bishop I. E. Šarić, who draws on biblical, classical, and folk motifs.

The greatest representative of contemporary Croatian poetry, Vladimir Nazor (1876–1949), a prolific and versatile poet, in opposition to the “decadence” in literature, extols the healthy energies of the ancestors (Slavic Legends) and, after glorifying Croatian history (The Croatian Kings), turns to probing his own spiritual world, ultimately drawing on a clear Christian sentiment in his quest for Franciscan humility. His political and literary collaboration with communism in the final years of his life (1942–49) is difficult to reconcile with the ideological positions upheld in his earlier works. In contrast to Nazor’s vital poetry, D. Domjanić is calmer, more cordial, and suggestive, writing in the sweet dialect of his native village delicate and musical poems that express the pure and simple faith of his countrymen.

Equal to Nazor in artistic quality and depth of analysis, M. Cihlar Nehajev (1880–1931) expressed in his monumental psychological novel The Wolves a lofty word on Croatia’s mission. A writer of witty aphorisms and ingenious sketches is F. Mažuranić. The representative of the modern novel inspired by Catholic ideals was V. Deželić senior, who, like Sienkiewicz, sought to exalt the heroic and Christian past while devoting himself to the Christian education of youth. He was followed by M. Kovačević, author of vigorous realistic novels, and by two literary critics influenced by Brunetière: Č. Jakša and A. Petravić.

Filled with mystical ardor and superior to all his contemporaries in form and biblical content is the priest I. Poljak, whose work is approached by the expansive poet-priest M. Pavelić, who masterfully combines the mystical with the patriotic. The impressionist current is represented by F. Galović, a poet of fields and forests. Also notable are G. Kostelnik, D. Dujmulić, B. Škarić, F. Rožić, A. Čičić, and P. Tvrtković, though all are surpassed by Z. Šprajcer, whose melancholic harmonies are filled with longing for celestial joys. The poetry of L. Knežević is all melody, that of J. Benac and Friar Bono Zec is serene and sincere, while T. Alaupović’s songs flow with spontaneous inspiration, inviting, with Christian tolerance, the Bosnian Croats of different confessions to concord. The delicate Djuro Sudeta left verses of extraordinary suggestiveness; seraphically he loved life and transformed the sorrow of having to leave it soon into the joyous vision of eternal youth.

Contemporary lyric poetry is characterized by intimate recollection and the primacy of the spiritual element (T. Ujević, Lj. Wiesner, A. B. Šimić, V. Majer, V. Vlaisavljević, O. Delorko, A. Bonifatić, D. Cesarec, G. Krklec, S. Trontl, D. Tadijanović, F. Alfević, N. Šop, A. Kolić, C. Skarpa, I. Horvat, I. Lendić, V. Kos, and many others).

Contemporary Croatian prose seeks expression in a clear and constructive worldview, analyzing psychological aspects and national problems. As for drama, its development is linked to the founding of the National Theatre in Zagreb, whose organization and function owe much to S. Miletić and A. Šenoa. The most prominent names in drama are I. Vojnović (Dubrovnik Trilogy), M. Begović, and M. Krleža; alongside them should be mentioned M. Ogrizović (Hasanaginica), A. Muratbegović, and others.

The modern short story inspired by Catholic ideals is represented by V. Violić, V. Blažinić, L. Katić, A. Matasović, N. Subotić, J. Andrić, and above all by Friar E. Matić (pseud. Narcis Jenko), vigorous in conception, sure in narrative, and a master of style. Beautiful pages on the life of the poet and saint of Assisi were left by the French soul of I. Kršnjavi, while V. Deželić junior made the lives of Cyril and Methodius and St. Jerome the subject of his novels, seeking to demonstrate the traditional attachment of the Croats to the Christian civilization of Rome.

Among modern Croatian novelists, several women stand out: J. Truhelka, who introduces an autobiographical note into her works dedicated to the Christian education of youth; S. Jurkić, an outstanding talent from Bosnia, who won the world of women with her novels and legends of exquisite beauty and delicacy, enlivened by a high conception of moral and Christian principles; S. Košutić, a sensitive soul of refined taste, who sees the highest end of personal activity in intimate communion with God; and I. Brlić-Mažuranić, who left the finest tales for children in all Croatian literature.

Realistic and psychological short stories are cultivated by A. Nametak, V. Kaleb, and L. Perković, while the novel is represented by A. Bonifatić, Z. Remeta, M. Švel, E. Čolaković, S. Kolar, and A. Nizeteo. Yet Mile Budak (1889–1945) surpasses all contemporary prose writers in elemental creative force, linguistic richness, and his contemplation of human existence within the perspective of eternal light.

Croatian literary life after its 19th-century revival is closely tied to national institutions: Matica Hrvatska (1842), Jugoslavenska Akademija (1867), Društvo sv. Jeronima (1868), Društvo Hrvatskih Književnika, and several others. The principal literary journals include Hrvatsko Kolo (a review), Vienac, Savremenik, Hrvatska Prosjekta, and Hrvatska Revija. Among the best-known literary critics and historians are M. Rešetar, B. Vodnik, F. Fancev, B. Livadić, M. Nehajev, M. Kombol, A. Haler, A. Barac, and Lj. Moraković.

5. Serbian Literature

While the Croats oriented themselves toward Western Catholic culture, the Serbs adhered to Orthodox-Byzantine civilization; they adopted the Cyrillic alphabet as their national script and maintained the Church Slavonic language in literary production, which until the 18th century remained tied to the Church, so that literature became religious culture. Serbian literature begins with Sava Nemanjić (d. 1235), the founder of the autocephalous Serbian Church, who wrote a warm biography of his father Stephen. The religious and cultural life of the Serbs in this period is generally an expression of old Byzantine Orthodoxy, and literary production is reduced to imitation of Sava in the composition of biographies of “national” saints, chronicles, translations, and transcriptions of sacred texts.

Humanism and the Renaissance had no repercussions in Serbia and were ignored. Only European Enlightenment, with the learned adventurer D. Obradović (1742–1811), marked a turning point in Serbian culture and literature; he wrote various works of intellectual edification and left a most interesting autobiography full of humanity and evangelical love. Yet Church Slavonic was still maintained in the poetry of two good moralists, J. Vujić and L. Mušicki, who regarded literature as a means of instruction. It was left to Vuk S. Karadžić (1787–1864), a brilliant autodidact and famous collector of folk poetry, to banish from literature the old and hallowed (but now incomprehensible) Slavonic language and replace it with the living popular tongue; to consolidate this, he wrote a grammar, compiled a dictionary, and translated the New Testament into II. In the spirit of Vuk’s linguistic reform and of Romanticism, which fostered a particular Serbdom, P. P. Njegoš (d. 1851) composed his masterpiece and epic poem *The Mountain Wreath*, in which he splendidly depicted the “St. Bartholomew’s Night” of Montenegrin Muslims. Less profound but more spontaneous and cordial is B. Radičević, who, lyrical in soul and inspired by folk poetry, created captivating goliardic poems, not without a dark melancholy. In the lyric and patriotic poetry of G. Jakšić, the fiery nature and susceptibility of the poet are reflected. The best-known Romantic lyricist of Serbian poetry is Z. J. Jovanović (1833–1904), a poet of delicate sensitivity, profound intuition, and facile expression, who particularly succeeded in expressing the joys and sorrows of family life; no less appreciated are his poems for children.

The founder of Serbian Realism, J. Ignjatović, is an ironically detached observer of life; his socially oriented novels lack depth in the analysis of spiritual conflicts. He is followed by K. Trifković, a writer of well-crafted humorous comedies, and M. Glišić, creator of the realistic tale and staunch defender of patriarchal morality. Realist and Romantic at once, L. Lazarević left few but among the finest novellas of Serbian literature; they are written in perfect form and suffused with delicate lyricism. J. Veselinović also idealizes healthy and honest rural life. Through numerous novellas and a humorous novel, S. Matavulj depicts the Montenegrin and Belgrade world. Among Serbian realists who look with jealous enthusiasm on old forms of life hallowed by tradition, lashing out with mockery and satire at progressive new ideas, is the greatest Serbian humorist, S. Sremac. S. Ranković, a realist and pessimist with a lofty conception of the psychological novel, describes provincial life without closing his eyes to its moral and social ills. Without broad scope but calm and direct, S. Čorović distinguished himself in his novellas as an excellent portrayer of national types and characters. M. Uskoković, of sensitive nature and marked by typically Slavic sentimentalism, successfully treated characters drawn from modern Serbian intellectual life. Yet the most original and representative narrator of Serbian Realism is B. Stanković (1876–1927); born at the border of the Greek, Turkish, and Slav worlds, he succeeded in infusing his characters with all the defects and virtues deriving from the crossing of these different racial elements, in a predominant erotic tone. An excellent storyteller too was P. Kočić, who achieved particular success in political and social satire. I. Čipko, an enthusiast of primitive life and an admirer of wild nature, describes with poetic lyricism the elemental forces of nature and man. B. Nušić proved his talent in the most varied literary genres, but in the end—and excellently—he established himself in comedy. The reformer of modern Serbian poetry, V. Ilić, enamored of classical beauties, introduced into his melodic poems personal intimacy and formal elegance, thereby freeing Serbian poetry from its excessive attachment to folk poetry. The Serbian nationalist A. Šantić became the most popular modern bard not only with his patriotic and Christian-themed social poetry but especially as a poet of nostalgic strains for the passing youth that carries away optimism and idealism of life. Two Serbian poets who assimilated Western art, turning their backs on the predominant Russian influence, were J. Dušić and M. Rakić.

6. Croatian and Serbian Folk Poetry

The pride of Serbian and Croatian literature is their exceedingly rich epic and lyric folk poetry. Although many elements are common to both, there is a Croatian folk poetry (written in all three dialects) and a Serbian folk poetry. The first to acquaint European literary circles with this was Abbot Alberto Fortis in his *Viaggio in Dalmazia* (1774), in which he published the Croatian text and an Italian translation of the splendid ballad *Hasanaginica* (The Bride of Hasan-Aga), of Croatian provenance (ikavian dialect group). A certain number were translated into Italian by N. Tommaseo in his anthology *Canti toscani, corsi, greci, illirici* (Venice 1841). Published in part in the 19th century, these songs soon became known worldwide; indeed, after the classical poems of antiquity, nothing perhaps more spontaneous had been seen. The innocence of popular lyric poetry finds only a few analogies in some passages of the Greek Anthology. The general epic theme of the struggle against the Turks did not give rise to a true and proper epic, ordered and complete, but to a series of detached songs that celebrate individual moments of this centuries-long struggle and are grouped according to their subject and principal characters into various cycles. Among the cycles of Serbian folk poetry, the most beautiful and widespread is that dealing with the Battle of Kosovo. The songs of the cycle of Kraljević Marko are all of pure and powerful inspiration, wild and gentle at once. His deeds are informed by the ideas and sentiments of his people, whose vices and virtues he possesses to a high degree. The songs whose subject is the exploits of the *ajuški* are imbued with a mixture of humanity and violence, generous loyalty and bold deceit. And it is the richest of all cycles; particularly distinguished among them are those poems that sing of the romantic-heroic deeds of the Uskoks of Senj, then those dedicated to the famous warrior Mijat Tomić and to Sibinjanin Janko.

The most complete collections are those by V. Karadžić, *Srpske Narodne Pjesme*, 9 vols., Belgrade 1891 ff.; and those published by Matica Hrvatska under the title *Hrvatske Narodne Pjesme*, 10 vols., Zagreb 1896 ff.

7. Slovenian literature

The culture of the Slovenes is closely connected with their Christianization. The first Christian missionaries among the Slovenes, however, were foreigners. The earliest written documents are the so-called Freising Monuments (971–1025 AD). They include a general formula of confession that was recited aloud by the priest during the sermon and repeated by the people, a sermon on sin and penance, and a formula of public general confession.

The second written Slovenian document belongs to the first half of the 15th century (Stična Manuscript). Two other important Slovenian manuscripts from the 15th century are connected with liturgy: the first is called the Celovec Manuscript, named after the place where it is preserved (Celovec is the Slovenian name for Klagenfurt); the second is the Cividade Manuscript.

In the 16th century, the Reformation of Luther also reached the Slovenes. The Protestants were not concerned with the development of the Slovenian language but rather with the spread of their religion.

Primož Trubar (1588–86), a pupil of the Triestine bishop Pietro Bonomo, was the principal propagator of Protestantism among the Slovenes. In 1551, he published the first two Slovenian books: the *Abecedarium* and the *Catechismus*. The books were printed in Gothic type. In 1555, Trubar reprinted the two books in Latin characters. Even his subsequent works are of a religious nature.

Trubar wished to provide the Slovenes with as many texts as possible and perhaps for this reason did not pay much attention to their form. Greater importance was instead given to form by a writer of broader vision and greater sensitivity: such was Sebastjan Krelj (1538–67). In 1566, he published his *Bible for Children*. The following year, his *Slovenian Postil* appeared, with which he made a significant contribution to the improvement of Slovenian orthography. Krelj’s linguistic reforms were utilized in the most important work of the Protestant period: the Dalmatin Bible. Jurij Dalmatin was born around 1547 and died in 1589. In 1576, he published his first work, *Passione*, to which he added a sermon translated from German and a poem on the Passion. In 1578, he completed his translation of the Holy Scriptures. The entire Bible, which is his most important work, was published in 1584.

From this period, the Slovenes have only one Catholic work, namely the *Catholic Catechism*, translated by Leonardo Parchernecker. The book was printed in Graz in 1574.

Despite the intense cultural activity of the Protestants, Catholicism was too deeply rooted among the people to be uprooted. A notable figure in the Slovenian Catholic sphere is Tomaž Hren (1560–1630), bishop of Ljubljana. The Jesuit Janez Čandik composed the book *Evangeli e lettere*, which appeared in 1613. Janez Svetokrižki (Johannes a Sancta Cruce, 1645–1714) was a learned and renowned preacher whose sermons drew large crowds. Finally, in the first half of the 18th century, numerous Slovenian priests devoted themselves to literary activity.

The end of the 18th century, with its revolutionary events, revitalized Slovenian literary life.

The monk Marko Pohlin (1735–1801) is noteworthy for his intense literary activity. Among his works of a religious nature are the *Book of Prayers* and *The Saints’ Gospels Rendered*. Pohlin is also important for his various grammatical works. He laid the foundations for secular Slovenian poetry. Also remembered is his monastic companion, Janez Damascen (born Feliks Dev, 1732–86).

Notable for his grammatical work and sermons is the Jesuit Ožbalt Gutsman (1727–90). To this period also belongs the first Slovenian dramatist, Anton Tomaž Linhart (1756–95), who wrote the comedy *Il giorno felice o Matiček si sposa*, inspired by Beaumarchais but filled with typical scenes of Slovenian rural life.

Omitting some other names, we recall the first poet of the Slovenian Renaissance, the Franciscan Valentin Vodnik (1758–1819), a writer of considerable merit. *Il Cragolino felice*, *Rinascita dei miei connazionali*, *Il mio monumento*, and others are among his most notable poems. Historically significant are the poems *Illiria rinata* and *Illiria redenta*.

In the 19th century, the Slovenes increasingly aligned themselves with European culture. In the climate of Romanticism, the first truly European poet, France Prešeren, emerged. The early Romantics were still primarily enthusiastic about scientific research. It is therefore entirely natural that at the outset a linguist should take the lead, namely Jernej Kopitar (1780–1844). He studied law and then devoted himself to Slavic studies in Vienna. His first work is a grammar based on scientific principles: *Grammatica della lingua slovena nella Carniola, Carniola e Svitla*, published in 1808 and 1809. Notable too are the results of his research in the field of Old Church Slavonic.

Part of the Slovenes lived during this period under French administration, in the so-called Illyrian Provinces. It was precisely then that the Slovenian language gained free expression in elementary and secondary schools. The other Slovenes lived under Austria, which, wishing to win their sympathies, had established in 1811 a chair of Slovenian at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Graz.

After an arduous series of grammars, dictionaries, and linguistic studies that arose in the climate of the literary revival and early Romanticism, the younger generation began to turn its interest increasingly toward poetry. In 1830, an anthology of poetry titled *Ape slovene* appeared. The anthology was republished in 1831, then again in 1832, 1834, and 1848. Editor and contributor to the anthology was Mihal Kastelec (1796–1868), librarian of the Lyceum Library in Ljubljana. Among the principal contributors to the *Ape slovene* anthology was Matija Čop (1797–1835), well-versed in European literatures. But the greatest figure in the anthology was the poet France Prešeren (b. 1800 in Vrba in Upper Carniola, d. 1849 in Kranj).

The autobiographical sonnets include the amorous sonnets: Dei nostri padri, Sopra il sole, etc., which echo the sonnets of Petrarch. The disappointment and pain experienced by the poet in the years when he came into contact with the harsh reality of life found expression in the immortal sonnets of sorrow: nostalgia for his beloved native village, fear of the dark future, unequal struggle with adverse fate, desire for death. The second part of Prešeren’s work begins with the printing of the Serto dei sonetti in the Illyrisches Blatt in 1834. With the garland of sonnets, Slovenian poetry was enriched by a true masterpiece. To honor the memory of his deceased friend Čop, the poet wrote The Baptism at the Savica. The work comprises an introduction in terza rima (79 verses) and the rest in stanzas (424 verses) and refers to the Christianization of the Slovenes. From unrequited love, the poet moves on to treat his poetic mission (Al poeta). Other enduring poems of his are: The Sailor, Illegitimate Mother, etc.

Prešeren was too original and new a spirit to be fully understood by his contemporaries; nonetheless, subsequent generations of poets have drawn more or less from his work.

What Prešeren accomplished for Slovenian poetry, his contemporary Anton Martin Slomšek (1806–62) achieved by founding in 1851 the society «Družba Sv. Mohorja»; various of his poems are inspired by popular themes.

The year 1848 is a very important date in Slovenian literary and political history. With the fall of Metternich’s absolutism, censorship came to an end. Many cultural associations arose, and the technical-professional newspaper Agricultural and Artisan News saw the light of day. As the only existing Slovenian newspaper, the News began to publish literary, linguistic, ethnological, historical articles, etc. Among its contributors were Jovan Vesel-Koseski (1798–1884), the priest Franc Svetličić (1814–81), Miroslav Vilhar (1818–71), and Luka Jeran (1818–96), a priest who sought to initiate a Slovenian literature of distinctly Catholic orientation.

Also cited is L. Toman (1827–70), who sings of freedom, the fatherland, and God; Franc Cegnar (1826–91), who among other things translated Schiller’s dramas into Slovenian; Matija Valjavec (1831–97), who wrote under the strong influence of folk songs and composed some of the finest Slovenian legends and fairy tales. Janez Trdina was a critic, storyteller, and collector of folklore. Anton Janežič (1828–69) was a scholar who contributed notably to the Slovenian national awakening.

Meanwhile, the younger generation grew increasingly demanding in its national and cultural aspirations, while the “old guard” instinctively remained more conservative and contented themselves with expressing views bound by the maxim “all for religion, for the fatherland, and for the emperor.” In literature, the young repudiated utilitarianism and pedagogical tone, demanding pure art, a severe and combative critique on national issues. The leader of this youthful movement in the literary world was Fran Levstik (1831–87), who established himself as a narrator and in a sense took the helm of Slovenian literary life.

Levstik exerted a great influence on the literary circle of the so-called “Vajevci.” Notable among them is Simon Jenko (1835–69); his love poetry is delicate, his patriotic poems are full of sincerity; above all, he is the poet of sorrow who rises to implore God’s aid and consolation. His poetic collection closes with an epic cycle (Tesoro, Winter Evening, etc.). His poem Akanti has become the national anthem of Slovenia. Fran Erjavec (1834–87) is a keen observer of nature. Among his stories are The Terrible Gorge or The Adopted Son of the Woodcutter, Not All That Glitters Is Gold. Josip Stritar (1836–1923) is one of the most notable figures in Slovenian literature, especially as a critic; he was editor of the first exclusively literary journal Zvon (1870, 1876–1880). He educated the younger generation. As a writer, he oscillated between Romanticism and Realism. Among his stories are Mr. Mirodolski, a kind of parish priest Walefeld transplanted onto Slovenian soil.

Josip Jurčič (1844–81) is the classic of the Slovenian popular tale. His work Evening Among the Hunters at Gliro characterizes the Romantic-Realist tendency in Slovenian literature. His tales successively wove in historical motifs (The Castle of Rojinje, The Monk Soldier, etc.). Also remembered are his novel The Tenth Brother and the drama Veronica of Desenice.

In the second half of the 19th century, the rift between the young and old generations of Slovenians grew sharper, and in a certain way two literary currents formed; yet between the two currents there are points of intersection, as with the priest and poet Simon Gregorčič (v.). The young literary figures founded in 1881 the journal Ljubljanski Zvon (The Ljubljana Bell). Almost simultaneously, the journal Dom in Svet (Home and the World, 1888–1945) began publication in Ljubljana, a paper aimed at the people but which later began to rival Ljubljanski Zvon. In this period, the activity of two publishing organizations was very intense: the Mohorjeva družba (Society of St. Hermagoras), founded by Bishop Martin Slomšek, and the Slovenska matica (Slovenian Hive) with its excellent yearbooks of historical, philological, and cultural studies.

Frančišek Levec (1864–1916) succeeded Janežič and Stritar as an organizer of Slovenian literary life. Of Janko Kersnik (1852–97) are remembered the Sunday Letters, Lenten Reflections, The People of Luther, Death in the Countryside, The Two Assessors, etc.

Ivan Tavčar (1851–1925), a liberal, was especially drawn to the Lutheran period, which serves as the backdrop for his work Life of My Life (1882). He also found inspiration in his native surroundings. In the novel Dead Hearts, Tavčar depicts contemporary society. His finest artistic abilities are evident in his last two works: Autumn Flowers (1917) and The Chronicle of Visoko (1919). He also wrote many short stories, tales, and essays. Fran Detela (1850–1926) is the author of realistic stories, novels, satires, and comedies. Fran Govekar (1871–1949) forms the bridge from Realism to Naturalism in Slovenian literature. His major works are On the Abyss and the novel Dawn. Anton Aškerc (1856–1912) is the greatest Slovenian epic poet. Of him are remembered Ballads and Romances and New Poems.

Also noteworthy is the poet and priest Anton Medved (1869–1910), an excellent lyricist and dramatist. He belongs to the group of Catholic poets who collaborated with the literary journal Dom in svet. To the same group belongs the priest Mihael Opeka (1871–1936). Many of his poems bear the imprint of his stay in Rome. Also remembered is the priest J. E. Krek (1865–1917). His best stories are From the New Life and The Three Sisters.

Great impetus was given to Slovene literature by the group known as the Slovenska moderna, whose leading figures were Ivan Cankar, Oton Županić, Dragotin Kette and Josip Muran-Aleksandrov. The work of Cankar (1876–1918) is identified with the affirmation of Slovene literature on a truly European level. With him, the Slovene language attained notable expressive vigour. A writer deeply concerned with modern social problems, he stripped away all hypocrisy and gradually emancipated himself from narrow content, increasingly sensing national and religious values. From this point onward, it would be impossible to list all the most notable names in Slovene literature. O. Županić, the greatest modern Slovene poet, who in an original way echoed certain themes common to early twentieth-century Western lyric poetry, felt deeply the charm of youthful memories and the bitterness of life. D. Kette and J. Muran-Aleksandrov were two lyric poets of the highest calibre who died young. Among the most notable exponents of modern Slovene literature, alongside many others, are V. Molč, whose work shows a return to classical taste; St. Majcen, a dramatist, poet and storyteller; the expressionist J. Lovrenčić; the storytellers I. Pregej and F. Bevk, as well as Izidor Cankar, a critic of considerable merit; M. Kranjec and T. Seliškar display a naturalistic, materialist and social orientation. In the decades between the two world wars, the number of translations from foreign literatures increased significantly. The war years interrupted this flourishing cultural development. Under the new regime established in J., literature, like that of other Eastern European countries, has increasingly been subjected to the pressure of the currently dominant ideology.

VIII. ART

In the regions that now form the Yugoslav state, artistic manifestations in the past assumed very different aspects according to political events and geographical position.

The very close relations between the art of the Dalmatian littoral and Italy, and particularly Venice, have been treated separately (v. DALMATIA, art).

8. Croatian Art

The centuries-long development of Croatian art can be traced by dividing and studying it according to three main zones: Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Pannonian Croatia between the rivers Sava and Drava.

Bosnia-Herzegovina was artistically poorer in the past; yet there are numerous remains of Paleochristian basilicas (e.g., Zenica), alongside many sepulchral monuments, known as stećci or mramori, from the period before the Turkish occupation.

In Pannonian Croatia, after the arrival and Christianization of the Croats, art developed in various forms for several centuries under the influence of Catholic Europe. Few artistic monuments survive from before the Gothic period, mainly because of the political turmoil of the time and the continual wars against Ottoman invasion. Advanced Romanesque and ornamental interlace decoration, characteristic of the Croatian dynasty (9th–11th centuries), can be found in various parts. The primitive cathedral of Zagreb (late 11th century) has left no traces, having completely disappeared. The Gothic period produced several monuments of great value, among them the Cistercian abbey of Topusko, the church of St Mark in Zagreb, restored to its former glory in 1937, and numerous other churches (Lepoglava, Remete, Crikvenica, etc.). The Renaissance left no lasting traces, and the Baroque followed without transition. Examples of this period include the church of St Catherine in Zagreb (17th century) and many parish and convent churches; noteworthy is that of Belec. Much later, Croatia experienced a period of Neoclassical influence, to which Bishop Strossmayer reacted by commissioning, after long study, the monumental cathedral of Đakovo, where he happily fused Romanesque and Byzantine styles, symbolizing the union of Catholic West and Orthodox East. Also notable from this period is the cathedral of Sarajevo (architect Vancaš).

Among the older paintings, the frescoes in Zagreb cathedral (13th century) stand out, and among the more recent ones those in the churches of Belec and Hrašćina (by L. Margrot, B. Bobić and the most talented J. Ranger). The transition from old to modern is represented by the painters V. Karas (d. 1858) and F. Quiquerez (d. 1893). They are followed by painters of merit such as V. Bukovac (1855–1922), an excellent portraitist; C. Medović (1859–1920), known for his seascapes and historical and religious subjects; B. Cikoš (1864–1931), of academic style; O. Iveković (d. 1932), with historical subjects; I. Tišov (d. 1924), with rustic themes; M. Cil. Crnčić (d. 1930), a skilled landscape painter, as well as F. Kovačević (d. 1929) and S. Raškaj (d. 1906). With more modern concepts and technique, J. Račić (d. 1908) and M. Kraljević (d. 1913), both of whom died young, subsequently established themselves, and to them may be added V. Bećić (1886–1950).

Several contemporary Croatian painters have achieved recognition beyond their national borders, exhibiting successfully in various European capitals. Among the most eminent are E. Vidović, J. Kljaković (whose splendid frescoes adorn the northern façade of the Collegium Illustre de Sancto Hieronymo in Rome), T. Krizman, M. Uzelac, Lj. Babić, K. Hegedušić, J. Miše, O. Mujadžić, and then the even younger artists with the most modern tendencies: Režek, Tiljak, Šimunović, Parać, Motika, Likan, Kopač, Crnobori, Plančić, Postružnik, Šimat, Dučmelić, etc.

In sculpture, after I. Rendić (1849–1932), the founder of modern Croatian sculpture, came several sculptors of strong calibre, such as R. Frangeš-Mihanović, R. Valdec, I. Kerdić, T. Rosandić, F. Kršinić, A. Augustinić, but above all stands the towering figure of Ivan Meštrović (b. 1883), sculptor and architect of world renown.

In the field of modern Croatian architecture, V. Kovačić deserves mention, his finest work being the church of St Blaise in Zagreb.

Croatian music is distinguished above all by its extraordinarily rich musical folklore, carefully collected by various musicians (F. Kuhač, V. Žganec, B. Širola, I. Matečić). Since 1827 Croatia has had its own Conservatory in Zagreb, and since 1846 an Opera Theatre. Since 1906 the journal of sacred music Sveva Cecilija has been published. Among the best Croatian musicians are Lukačić (16th century), V. Lisinski (d. 1854), composer of the first Croatian opera Ljubav i zloba, performed in Zagreb in 1846; F. Pintarić, I. Zajc, author of some of the most popular Croatian operas; Bersa, Odak, Lučić, J. Gotovac, author of the most renowned modern Croatian opera (Ero s onoga svijeta, The Bridegroom from the Other World), performed in almost all the capitals; K. Baranović, B. Papandopulo, K. Kolb and others.

9. Slovene Art

In Slovenia, the first artistic monuments, apart from those of the Roman period, date from the 10th century. These have a primitive character, such as the so-called Vojvodski prestol (Duke’s Throne) in Carinthia. This character persists until the beginning of the Gothic period; an exception is the Cistercian basilica of Stična.

### 3. Serbian Art

In Serbia (Rascia, Macedonia), the greatest artistic flowering in the Middle Ages coincided with political power under the Nemanjić dynasty. The region, situated on the border of the Byzantine world, was dominated by that culture, though not without Western infiltrations through the Dalmatian coast. The numerous monastic buildings that arose there between the 12th and 14th centuries show very strong Eastern influences, especially in Macedonia, where the iconography of the churches favors the Byzantine cruciform type with five domes (e.g., the church of Staro Nagoričino, 1312–13); these influences are less pronounced in Rascia, where the longitudinal plan is more common (e.g., the monastery of Studenica, late 12th century; the church of Žiča, early 13th century; the church of Gračanica, completed before 1321, modeled on the church of the Holy Apostles in Thessaloniki). In Rascia, Western forms prevail in the church of Visoki Dečani, built in 1327 by a friar, Vito of Kotor. These various influences, however, were elaborated with distinctive characteristics: a compactness of masses, despite the complexity of the iconography, and a greater upward thrust, due to the firm dominance of domes on square bases. Sculpture was entirely subordinate to architecture, limited to the decoration of ornamental bands with interlacements, animals, and human heads; here too, Byzantine influences prevail in the area closest to Macedonia.

Of exceptional importance are the documents of painting from this period; some of these, discovered about twenty-five years ago by Okunev, have shed new light on the knowledge of Byzantine-Slavic culture. The fresco cycles of the monasteries of Mileševo (1236) and Sopoćani (c. 1250), with their vivid impressionistic technique and dramatic animation of the scenes, skillfully composed with a sure spatial sense, are linked to that Neo-Hellenistic movement which, already in the 12th century, extended from Macedonia (the Nerezi monastery) to central Russia (Vladimir). A crescendo of dramatic intensity is found in other 14th-century frescoes (e.g., at Gračanica, frescoes illustrating the liturgical calendar; at Staro Nagoričino, from 1317, where the signature of the Greek Eutychios appears; at Markov Manastir, where local artists translate these characteristics with popular fervor), while the older ones in the monasteries of Studenica and Žiča (12th century) reflect instead the traditional direction of the Comnenian era.

This splendid flowering was cut short by the fall of Serbian independence at the Battle of Kosovo (1389), followed by the long Turkish domination. Painting, confined to the monasteries, became a traditional craft; the architecture of the new rulers had no relation to local forms, though they engaged in intense construction activity and left some of Europe’s most important Islamic monuments in Macedonia (Skopje, the minarets of Sultan Murat, 1430, and of Gazi-Isa-Beg, 1476) and in Bosnia (Sarajevo, the mosque known as the Bey’s Mosque, 1529).

The first attempts at rapprochement with European art in Serbia began in the north, in the Vojvodina region, at the end of the 18th century, and intensified in the 19th century alongside the movements for political independence. Neoclassicism and Romanticism penetrated from the West without producing notable works or giving rise to a school with local characteristics. The best-known among modern painters, U. Predić, painted religious subjects and portraits. A highly renowned portraitist was also P. Jovanović. At the end of the 19th century, N. Petrović, B. Popović, Glišić, Stefanović, and Lj. Ivanović, an etcher, gained prominence. Among sculptors worthy of mention are Ubavčić, Jovanović, and Roksandić. After World War I, a great influence was exerted by the Paris school, which manifested itself especially in P. Dobrović and M. Milunović. Before World War II, Šumanović, Ličenovski, Martini, Bjelić, Radović, and among contemporary architects, particularly Brašovan, Milić, Žlokočić, and Kojić, distinguished themselves.

In the field of music, in the 19th century, Stanković and Mokranjac stood out as composers and collectors of folk songs. Among the best-known contemporaries are P. Konjović, Hristić, Paunović, Manajlović, and Tajčević.

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### VIII. Educational System

Yugoslav education is administered by six Ministries of Public Education, located in Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Their aim is to eliminate illiteracy entirely through vocational courses, public universities, and special courses for illiterates, of which there are 486 in Bosnia-Herzegovina and 2,109 in Macedonia.

The teaching of Marxism is compulsory in all Yugoslav schools and forms the basis of education. The Yugoslav Constitution recognizes the rights of ethnic minority groups, allowing them to establish schools for their own communities.

Yugoslav education is divided into Serbian, Slovene, Croatian, Montenegrin, Macedonian, and Bosnian-Herzegovinian, and is compulsory, free, and based on the principle of coeducation.

Preschool education comprises 413 kindergartens; primary education includes 920 elementary schools, 2,903 secondary schools, 87 teacher-training schools, 265 science-based lycées, 321 agricultural schools, 20 technical-industrial institutes, and 125 vocational secondary schools. Post-school education includes apprentice schools, which are compulsory for industrial workers. These schools offer “courses for labor innovators” and “assault workers’ courses.” Higher education is provided at the Universities of Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo, Subotica, and Skopje, as well as at 2 higher teacher-training colleges, 2 academies of fine arts, the Academy of Music, the School of Commercial Sciences, and the State Conservatory.

The education of secular Catholic clergy takes place in 10 major seminaries and 12 minor seminaries. The education of Slavic-rite Catholic clergy is conducted at the Zagreb Boarding Seminary. — See plates XXXIX–XL.