BYZANTINE, LITURGY. – This term designates the liturgy to which Byzantium gave its distinctive imprint and character.
I. ORIGIN
Byzantium was not the cradle of the rite that bears its name, for it traces its origins to Antioch, the first capital of the East. In the ancient Antiochene rite, in fact, we find its primitive core, which, passing through Asia Minor, found its completion on the shores of the Bosphorus.Pontus and Cappadocia had in turn received the faith from Syria, and it was natural that the first missionaries should bring with them, along with the teaching of the Gospel, the forms of worship in use in the mother Church. When, however, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Empire and, at the Council of Chalcedon (451), was recognized as the seat of a patriarchate, its position in relation to the other ecclesiastical provinces enabled it to enjoy an ever greater independence. This autonomy, together with the presence of a numerous clergy and learned and influential men, manifested itself in the liturgical sphere through the formation of particular rites and the creation of a local calendar and eortology. This period of transformation and development runs from the 8th to the 12th century.
II. EXPANSION AND LITURGICAL LANGUAGES
The translation of liturgical books into various languages is connected with the expansion of the Byzantine rite. Almost always the original Greek preceded, but the principle that the faithful should actively participate in liturgical prayer meant that only the language spoken and understood by the people held preeminence.1) Greek language. It was in force in all the provinces dominated or influenced by the Byzantine Empire and conquered at different times. Now all the Greeks scattered in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, with their colonies founded in the Old and New Worlds, preserve the Greek language in which their rich liturgical repertoire was composed. In Italy, the same is to be noted for the southern provinces and for Sicily, once under the jurisdiction of the patriarchate of Constantinople, and later becoming a refuge for monks persecuted by the iconoclasts and the Arabs, and, later still, for Albanians and Greeks driven from their countries by the Turks. These new colonies, besides Sicily, Calabria, and Apulia, settled in several cities, especially in Naples and Venice, where they remained the longest. In Rome the Byzantine rite was practiced in numerous monasteries populated by Greek monks and nuns, the last remnant of which is the cenobium of Grottaferrata. Nor should we pass over in silence the Greek College of St. Athanasius, founded by Gregory XIII in 1576, where today young Hellenes and Greeks from the Turkish republic, the eparchies of Lungro and Piana dei Greci, Melkites, and Albanians are received.
2) Armenian language. Christianity penetrated into Armenia through two currents. First the Eastern Syrians, then the Byzantines sent their missionaries there and with them brought their liturgical customs. Liturgical texts in Greek were translated into Armenian as early as the mid-5th century, followed by other influences.
3) Syriac and Arabic languages. In the year 969 the Byzantines retook from the Arabs Antioch and Syria, which they held until 1084. Their influence thus extended to the patriarchates of Alexandria and Jerusalem. In those Churches from the 5th century the ecclesiastical hierarchy, with its dependent faithful, was divided into two branches: the Monophysites and the Melkites, i.e., “imperials,” so called because they remained faithful to the emperors of Byzantium who defended orthodox doctrine. These divisions in religious matters did not at first have repercussions on the rite. Under Byzantine influence, however, the Melkites gradually adopted the Byzantine rite. Since Syriac was the common language in Syria, the Greek liturgical books were first translated into that tongue; but when Syriac fell into disuse and was replaced by Arabic, this became the official or semi-official liturgical language. Nevertheless, Greek is not entirely excluded either among Catholics or among dissidents.
4) Slavic language. It is used by the Bulgarians, by the South Slavs (Serbs, nuclei in Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, and Montenegro), by the Ruthenians and Ukrainians, by the White Russians (White Russians) scattered in the eastern provinces of Poland and in adjacent Russia, and by the Little Russians and Great Russians (Little and Great Russians) who inhabit the rest of the Soviet republics. The liturgical books of the Byzantine Church were translated in the 10th century into the language then spoken by the majority of these peoples and which is still preserved under the name of Old Church Slavonic. In the following centuries several revisions took place, making it possible to distinguish two somewhat different recensions. In the second half of the 14th century Metropolitan Cyprian undertook a new revision of the liturgical texts from the Greek, and finally, always from the Greek originals, the books were corrected under the direction of Patriarch Nikon (1654–55). Some linguistic differences are noted among the Ruthenians and among the other Slavs.
5) Georgian language. Georgia, converted to Christianity in the 5th century by missionaries from Antioch, soon came under the sphere of influence of the patriarchate of Constantinople, from which it received its liturgical books. Greek remained in use until the Iberian monks, who dwell on Mount Athos, translated them into their national language toward the 10th–12th century. However, with the conquest of Georgia by Russia, efforts were made by every means to introduce the Russian language.
6) Romanian language. In Dacia the light of the Gospel was brought by Western missionaries. In the 16th century Wallachia and Moldavia were invaded by the Bulgarians, who then imposed their liturgy and the Slavic language on the occupied countries. From the 16th century the predominance of the Byzantines began, and the Greek language was in honor in many churches and monasteries. Finally, in the 17th and 18th centuries the Romanian version of the liturgical books was completed.
7) Hungarian language. In the course of the 14th century, under the dominion of Lithuania, the Ruthenians settled in Mukachevo and the surrounding regions, eventually forming a large province later called Subcarpathia. They are almost all Catholics. Later they passed under the kings of Hungary, and Hungarian, taught in the schools, soon became the official language. Some Ruthenians, mainly those of the plain, forgot their native language and adopted the Magyar tongue: under the influence of these circumstances, it became necessary to translate and print a large part of the liturgical books into Hungarian. This work was carried out from the second half of the 17th to the 19th century. The Holy See several times sought to curb these initiatives by prescribing certain limitations, especially in the translation of the Eucharistic liturgies.
8) Albanian language. Since 1912, when the metropolitan eparchies of Albania constituted themselves into an autocephalous Church, the movement in favor of adopting Albanian for the liturgy has made steady progress. Promoter of these ideas and author of the Albanian version of several liturgical books is the priest Fan Noli, resident in America. The editions published so far have appeared partly in Boston and partly in Korçë.
9) Other languages. We find at least the versions of the Eucharistic liturgies and of the most common priestly and deacon prayers, recited aloud, in the languages of the Baltic countries, especially since they constituted themselves into autonomous Churches. Not to speak of the use of modern languages such as French, English, etc., the Russian Missionary Society of Kazan established a committee for the translation and dissemination of liturgical texts in the various languages of the Far East, from Tartar to Indian, to Japanese, etc. These versions were used by the numerous Russian priests and monks sent by the Orthodox Church to all parts of the Middle and Far East.
### III. BYZANTINE-ROMAN LITURGY
By this name one may designate the Roman Mass framed within the structure of the Byzantine liturgy that has received the name Liturgy of St Peter. We find it in several Greek, Georgian, and Slav versions. Different from this is the Liturgy of St Gregory the Great, which is the translation of the Latin Mass into Greek with some Byzantine infiltrations, or the Canon of the said Mass simply adopted by the Armenian Catholics. This latter seems to have been in use in Constantinople, at least in some churches, after the conquest of the Crusaders in 1204, whereas the Liturgy of St Peter is older and the Greek text found great favor in southern Italy.
### IV. BYZANTINE LITURGICAL BOOKS
Here we note only the principal ones.
**Gospel** (τὸ σύγγενη ἐν, evangelia, evangelia) divided into pericopes for each day of the year, followed by those proper to feasts or special circumstances.
**Apostle** (τὸ ἀστρολό, apostol, apostolul) contains the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles. The division into pericopes is analogous to that of the Gospels.
**Psalter** (τὸ χανί, stropi, psaltir, psaltirea) besides the psalms contains the scriptural canticles.
**Euchologion** (τὸ συγκολόγιο, euchologul) contains the common prayers of Vespers and Orthros, the three Liturgies, the Sacraments, the rites for the dead and for monks, the consecrations and blessings. Not infrequently, still among the modern Slavs, the eucharistic liturgy with the prayers of Vespers and Orthros forms a special book, the **Liturgy** (τὸ λειτουργία, ληστιακό, sylechnik, liturgiae), while the other rites are contained in the **Agliasmateria** (τὸ ἁγιασματάριο, trebnik, agliasmatar).
**Horologion** (τὸ ὀρολόγιο, eassolor, orologul) in which are found all the fixed parts of the canonical hours with some extracts from the temporal and sanctoral, and some acolouthiae of current devotion.
**Octoechos and Parakletike** (τὸ κοντάκιον, ἡ παρακλητική, τοῦκιον, octoichul) contains the common parts of the temporal. These are arranged in order according to the eight tones of the Byzantine musical system.
**Triodion** (τὸ τριώδιον, triodul) contains the proper parts of the period known as Great Lent.
**Pentecostarion** (τὸ πεντηκοστάριον, pentecostarul) with the proper parts of the fifty days following the solemnity of Easter.
The Slavs, like all Byzantines in former times, distinguish the “Lenten Triodion” (triod postnaja) and the “Flowery Triodion” (triod tsvetnaja), which correspond to the two preceding books.
**Menaia** (τὸ μηναι, mjesacnaja, mineul) are twelve books corresponding to the twelve months of the year and contain the entire sanctoral.
**Typikon** (τὸ τυπικόν, typik, tipicul) is the book that defines the rubrics of the sacred functions and describes the sacred ceremonies.
### V. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BYZANTINE LITURGY
First of all, one must note the conservative and traditional character of it, by virtue of which the liturgical prayers are for the faithful an instrument of dogmatic, ascetical, and moral instruction. This does not exclude certain modifications and developments of various kinds that have occurred over the centuries.
In addition to the antiquity of most of the liturgical repertoire, one must also emphasize its social character. In a Byzantine church the entire assembly prays. The deacon, who stands between the Sanctuary and the faithful, expresses the object of the supplications, and these, or the reader and the chanter in their turn, respond to each of his formulae inviting to prayer. The priest, in the Sanctuary, translates the vows of the people with prayers recited in a low voice, raising it only when at the conclusion of them he glorifies the Most Holy Trinity or addresses to the faithful warm and insistent exhortations. The part of each of the ministers is therefore significant, and each can easily see and hear them.
Regarding the office, Vespers and Orthros (matins) are celebrated in the church and with the use of incense as in the eucharistic liturgy. The acolouthiae of midnight and the other canonical hours are celebrated without solemnity (with the exception of the Great Hours on certain days of the year and the Great Apodeipnon in Lent). In monasteries they are recited in the narthex, in memory of the hermits who came to church only for the major functions.
The administration of the Sacraments is always solemn, and the euchology abounds in blessings and prayers for all the spiritual and temporal needs of Christendom. The Byzantine rite takes pleasure in the concelebration of numerous ministers (bishops, priests, deacons, minor ministers) and this not only in the eucharistic liturgy. Among the characteristics of the Byzantine rite one must also note the veneration of icons, prostrations, unctions with the oil of lamps, the blessing and distribution of blessed bread (artoclasia, antidoron), etc.
### VI. COMMENTATORS
After the writings of St Maximus, 7th cent., we note among the principal ones the interpretation of the liturgy attributed to St Theodore the Studite (826); the mystical theory passed into tradition under the name of St Germanus I of Constantinople; the explanation of the Divine Liturgy by Nicholas Cabasilas (1341); the liturgical treatises of Symeon of Thessalonica (1429); the catechism of Nicholas Bulgari (17th cent.), etc. — See Plate CI.
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