CATECHISM. — The term c. is today used to indicate a brief compendium of the principal truths of Christian faith and morality, set forth in a clear, precise, easily understandable and memorable manner, and predominantly in the dialogical form of questions and answers between teacher and pupil (c.-book).
Originally, however, it indicated a series of questions addressed to those about to be baptized, in the atrium of the church, by the sponsors, or to the sponsors by the priest, together with the answers received. « Ante Baptismum fit catechismus et exorcismus... Illa autem interrogatio et responsio fidei fit in catechismo » (Pietro Lombardo, Sentent., I, 43); and also the oral and familiar instruction in the essential religious truths given to children and to adults, still ignorant, after Baptism. From this meaning of catechetical exposition the term finally came to indicate the text containing II.
The transition, however, did not take place so quickly; the term c., in the sense of a book, was initially used rather sporadically; it then received a kind of official sanction, especially through the extensive propaganda carried out for the c. of Lutero; thereafter, almost immediately, Catholic official sanction was given by the Council of Trent, followed by the confirmation of the Church’s constant and almost universal usage. Some, nevertheless, such as s. Pietro Canisio, s. Roberto Bellarmino, and s. Francesco di Sales, preferred—and even today prefer—the term « Christian doctrine ».
The variety of c. in the different centuries is considerable; in all of them, however, after a collection of prayers and formulas to be learned by heart (Credo, Acts of faith, hope, etc., the Commandments of God and the Precepts of the Church), there are more or less three parts: one concerns the truths about God, Jesus Christ, and the Church; another concerns morality; the third concerns the means provided by Grace. A fourth part often follows, concerning the liturgy in its rites and feasts.
I. THE C. IN THE MIDDLE AGES FROM THE 7TH CENTURY TO THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. — When entire tribes converted en masse and were baptized before having received sufficient instruction; and when the practice of baptizing children shortly after birth became prevalent, the Church found it necessary to continue or begin religious instruction even after Baptism. On this duty, incumbent upon parents or godparents at home; upon religious in monasteries and attached schools; and upon priests in church, the bishops of individual dioceses, as well as synods and councils, insisted repeatedly and emphatically (v. CATECHESI). It therefore became natural, in order to facilitate the task of instruction and at the same time preserve a certain uniformity, to compile catechetical manuals for instructors, sometimes in dialogue form, and occasionally to write some more suited to the mentality and understanding of children and the people.
Among the most representative manuals, mention should be made of the Disputatio puerorum per interrogationes et responsiones (PL 101, 1097-1144), from the time of Alcuin, which in ten chapters treats of the work of creation, God, the angels and man, the Old and New Testaments, the Church and the Sacraments; and in two further chapters contains an Expositio Symboli et Orationis dominicae, in dialogue form, in which the pupil asks questions and the teacher responds. This work constituted the standard catechesis from the eleventh to the thirteenth century. Under the title Incerti monachi Weissenburgensis catechesis theatisca aacc. IX (Hannover 1713, pp. 60-73), J. C. Eckard published a catechetical formula, which he erroneously attributed to the monk Ottofred of Weissenburg; it contains, in Old German, an explanation of the Pater, followed by a list of twenty « peccata criminalia per quae diabolus mergit homines in infernum » against the twofold precept of charity and the Decalogue; then follow the Apostolic and Athanasian Symbols and the Gloria in excelsis. Other similar formularies follow, attributed to Cherone, abbot of S. Gallo (ca. 750; ibid., pp. 81-86), and to Notker the Stammerer (d. in 1022; ibid., pp. 79-81); as well as two formularies for confession (ibid., pp. 93-99), in which we see that the penitent accuses himself not only of offenses committed in thought, word and deed against the commandments of God, but also concerning attendance at and frequency of Mass, fasting, and works of spiritual and corporal mercy. Several others may also be mentioned: Brunone of Würzburg (d. in 1045), who left several explanations of the Pater and the Creed, two of which reproduce passages verbatim from the Disputatio puerorum (PL 142, 557-68); Abelard, who composed an exposition on the same subjects (PL 188, 611-32); and Bonizone, bishop of Piacenza (d. ca. 1090), with his Libellus de Sacramentis (PL 150, 857-66).
A more significant step toward the modern c. can be observed in the thirteenth century with the characteristic « lucidari » or « dichiaratori », the first and most important of which is that of Onorio of Autun: Elucidarium, sive dialogus de summa totius christianae theologiae (PL 172, 1109-76). It is arranged in questions and answers and divided into three parts: the first explains the Creed, the second treats of physical and moral evil, and the third of the last things. This distinguished work received an Italian translation and various reprints (Ferrara 1490; Milan 1493, 1496; Venice 1508) under the title: Libro del maestro e del discipulo. A profound student of « lucidari » must also have been the anonymous Milanese author who composed one to bring light to children and simple people, entitled: Qui incommence al Libro del maestro e del discipulo (Milan 1521 [cf. Tamborini, p. 39]).
After the « lucidari » came the « settenari », popularized by Ugo of S. Vittore through his De quinque septenis, seu septenariis (PL 175, 405-14), so called because dogma and morality were expounded in relation to the number seven (the 7 petitions of the Pater, the 7 beatitudes, the 7 capital sins, the 7 gifts of the Holy Spirit, the 7 works of mercy, etc.). Although the method was somewhat artificial and did not proceed very logically, and therefore was not approved by everyone, it nevertheless proved effective and maintained considerable influence. It was followed, for example, by s. Edmond of Canterbury (d. in 1242) in his Speculum Ecclesiae, chaps. 8-18 (Maximus biblioth. Patrum, XXV, Lyon 1677, pp. 319-23), and by the Dominican Laurent in his Sommele-Roi (so called because it was composed at the request of Philip III the Bold, his penitent), which was copied many times and circulated under various titles, for example, Le miroir du monde, Somme des vices et des vertus (published in 1481, s. l.).
s. Tommaso d’Aquino also applied it in his opuscula, begun in 1256 and representing an even more noteworthy contribution to the formation of modern c.: Expositio Symboli apostolarum (opusc. 16); Expositio Orationis dominicae (opusc. 7); Expositio Salutationis angelicae (opusc. 8); De decem praeceptis et lege amoris (opusc. 4); De articulis fidei et Ecclesiae Sacramentis (opusc. 5). In these works the Angelic Doctor, in his simple and clear exposition, omits demonstrations and subtle questions, makes use of examples and comparisons drawn from ordinary life, and derives practical rules for Christian living; above all, he demonstrates how the formulas of the c. are coherent and interdependent, so as to form an organic whole. Indeed, he observes that three things are necessary for man to be saved: to know what he must believe, hope for, and do; now he learns the first from the Creed, the second from the Pater, and the third from the Decalogue and the two commandments of love proclaimed by Jesus Christ. And since Grace is necessary for all this, there are the Sacraments (cf. C. Werner, Der M. Thomas V. Aquin, I, Regensburg 1858, pp. 123-58). These opuscula of the holy Doctor, brought together and variously arranged and adapted, formed the framework of catechesis until the sixteenth century.
The fourteenth century offers us, among others, two works worthy of note: the Catechismus Vauriensis and the Lay Folks Catechism. The Catechismus Vauriensis represents the first text to which the name c. truly belongs, and we owe it to the decisions of the principal Synod of Lavaur, near Narbonne, held in 1369. The opuscula of s. Tommaso contributed greatly to its composition; but the doctrine is presented in a strictly logical and comprehensive order
(Mansi, XXVI, cols. 484-93). The Lay Folks Catechism was composed by Card. Thoresby, archbishop of York, and published in Latin and English in 1357 in order to implement the constitution (1281) of J. Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, who had ordered every priest to explain to the people four times a year « vulgariter, absque cuiuslibet subtilitatis textura phantastica » the Credo, the Sacraments, the two precepts of charity, the seven capital sins, and the seven virtues (theological and cardinal); he had also issued a brief instruction on each point to serve as an outline (cf. Cath. Enc., V [1909] p. 78). It should be noted that the term c. is used here a century before Luther.
The fifteenth century took a more decisive step toward the people and children. Until then, with some exceptions, catechetical manuals had generally been accessible only to priests for the instruction of the faithful; now, however, people began to think more earnestly—since the urgent need was increasingly recognized—of a text to be placed directly in the hands of the people. Much of the credit belongs to G. Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris (1362–1428), who, in his letter on the reform of the theological faculty, drew attention to the great benefit that would result from publishing and disseminating « aliquis tractatulus super punctis principalibus nostrae religionis et specialiter de praeceptis ad instructionem simplicium, quibus nullus sermo, aut raro fit » (Opera, I, Anversa 1706, col. 124). Since no one responded to the appeal, he himself composed three works: Compendium theologiae breve et utile (ibid., cols. 238–242); Opus tripartitum de praeceptis decalogi, de confessione et de arte moriendi (ibid., cols. 425–50); L'ABC des simples gens de très grande utilité et proufti; and, to defend himself against his adversaries, who accused him of having almost betrayed his dignity by teaching doctrine to children, he wrote De parvulis ad Christum trahendis (ibid., III, cols. 277–91). The same observations and appeals were proclaimed by the provincial Council of Tortosa in 1429 (Mansi, XXVIII, col. 1147, n. 6).
The invention of printing, however, greatly contributed to promoting this movement; without it, the suitable booklets could not have been easily disseminated among the people, as was necessary. One of the earliest, preceding Luther’s c. by at least sixty years, and shown by the arrangement and division of its 13 parts to be a true c. in the modern sense of the word, is the one attributed to S. Antonino, archbishop of Florence, entitled: Libreto della doctrina christiana, la quale è utile et molto necessaria che li putti piccoli et zovenzelli limpara per sapere amare, servire et honorare idio benedetto et schivare le temptazioni et peccati. It must initially have circulated in manuscript; the date of the first edition is unknown. The oldest reprint currently known is that of Venice in 1473 (cf. P. Guerrini, Gli incunaboli del c., in Suppl. pedagogici della scuola ital. moderna, 5 [1937–38], pp. 96–97; P. Tacchi Venturi, pp. 337–39). It went through several reprints but did not circulate very widely.
Luther now appeared on the scene. To disseminate his ideas among the people, in 1528 he published a small c. for « i fanciulli semplici », Klein Katechismus, initially in the form of posters so that it could be hung in homes, as had already been done much earlier among Catholics from the time of Charlemagne onward; subsequently it appeared as a booklet, with the subtitle Enchiridion. In presenting the individual parts (Commandments, Credo, Pater noster), he followed traditional usage, adding only two further parts on Baptism and Communion. The form consists of questions and answers; it is a model of simplicity and clarity and, in presenting the new doctrines, avoids any mention of polemics against the ancient Church, from which he had separated. The following year he published Der grosse Katechismus, in which he intended to provide parish priests with a more extensive guide and explanation. The style is lively and flowing, but it is not in the form of questions and answers. Here too Luther avoided polemics and even omitted some of his characteristic doctrines (for example, original sin, which suppresses every disposition toward good, the free interpretation of the Bible, and predestination to Hell).
Both c. enjoyed an extremely wide circulation, also as a result of the ordinances of Protestant princes, who made their use compulsory; subsequently they were accepted in the Formula concordiae (25 June 1580) as a symbol of the Lutheran Church. But the Protestant claim that they were a new creation springing from the mind of the Reformation is far from true and requires thorough revision (cf. H. Grisar, Luther, III, Friburgo in Br. 1912, pp. 408–17), especially since even within the Reformation they were not the first; in the single four-year period 1522–26, they had been preceded by another 39 (cf. Monumenta paedagogica, XX–XXIII, Berlino 1900–1902; F. Mangenot, s. V. in DThC, II, cols. 1907–1908).
Similarly, the other sects also had their c. To mention a few: Calvin, after his major work De christianae religionis institutione libri tres (Basilea 1535), which became the c. of the Reformed in France, published two in French in 1534 and 1537; Martin Bucero (Butzer) disseminated his Katechismen (Strasburgo 1534 and 1537), later revised in a Zwinglian sense in 1545; at Heidelberg in 1563 there appeared the Katechismus Heidelberger, composed by two Calvinists at the command of the Palatine elector Frederick III. It spread widely in Switzerland, Austria, and Holland and was the most celebrated of the c. after those of Luther (Z. Ursinus and C. Olevianus, Catechesis religionis christianae, quae traditur in eccles. et scholis palatinatus).
II. AROUND THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
The desire not to be outdone, as well as the need to forestall dangers among the people and to combat the adversary with equal weapons, including in the method of teaching, proved highly beneficial to Catholic catechesis, which produced a genuine flowering of catechisms that was never again to cease. In Italy, at least as early as 1540, that of Fra Tommaso Reginaldo, a Dominican, was printed in Milan; he had composed it at the request of St. Girolamo Emiliani, and the Somaschi used it for a long time: Simbolo de Athanasio exposto per modo de dialogo dal ven. p. frate Reginaldo... per exercitio spirituale delli poveri orfanelli; it went through various editions under different titles. Castellino da Castello had already begun in 1537 to prepare the Interrogatorio del maestro al discepolo per istruire li fanciulli e quelli che non siano nella via di Dio (cf. A. Sala, Dissertazioni e note circa la vita e le gesta di s. Carlo Borromeo, Milan 1858, pp. 68–84). Also noteworthy are Tullio Crispoldi, a pupil of the Oratory of Divine Love in Rome, with Alcune interrogazioni delle cose della fede et del stato, overo vivere dei cristiani (Verona 1540); Bishop Luigi Lippomano with Esposizioni volgari sopra il Simbolo apostolico (Venice 1545); and Bishop Leonardo de Marini with C., overo instrutione delle cose pertinenti alla salute delle anime... per la diocesi di Mantova (Mantua 1555). To these there was added, almost contemporaneously, a group of Jesuits, each with his own catechism, inspired by the needs observed in the field of ministry: G. Lainez at Parma; G. Domenech in Sicily; G. F. Araldo at Naples; A. Gagliardi at Milan, commissioned to do so by St. C. Borromeo; G. Ledesma at the Roman College in Rome; E. Augier in France, etc.; then the Barnabites and the Piarists, with the texts already cited in the article catechesis (v.).But the finest and most widespread Catholic catechism in the sixteenth century was that of St. Peter Canisius in its three versions: Summa doctrinae christianae (Vienna 1555, German translation, ibid. 1556), intended for catechists and educated persons, called the major catechism; the very brief Summa doctrinae christianae per quaestiones tradita et ad captum rudiorum accommodatae (Ingolstadt 1556, German translation, ibid. 1557), for children and the people, in 59 brief paragraphs, called the “c. minimus.” It first appeared anonymously, as an addition to the first rudiments of Latin grammar, Principia grammatices, by Fr. A. Codret, in order to counter the Protestants by the same means, such as Melanchthon, who sought to propagate their errors through schoolbooks. But, having recognized the need for an intermediate text for scholarly youth, Canisius published two years later: Parvus catechismus catholiorum (Cologne 1558), called the minor catechism and also issued under various titles: Catechismus catholicus and Instructiones doctrinae christianae; it was soon translated into German and other languages, with and without illustrations.
It was the most widely used text and went through more than 400 editions. The three catechisms essentially constitute a single work, differing only in the number and length of the paragraphs and, naturally, in the breadth and depth of the questions; but the principle is one and the division into four parts is likewise one, according to the following conception: Christian doctrine can be reduced to the knowledge and practice of wisdom and justice (Eccl. 1:33); wisdom comprises the theological virtues and the Sacraments; hence the first four parts: 1) faith = the Creed; 2) hope = the Pater; 3) charity = the Commandments; and 4) = the Sacraments. Justice consists in doing good and fleeing evil; hence: 5) sins, works of mercy, virtues, gifts of the Holy Spirit, beatitudes, evangelical counsels, and the last things. The expression is far removed from abstractions—concrete, practical, and above all permeated by the very words of Scripture and the Fathers, without any mention of controversy or of the errors of the innovators: merits and advantages recognized even by Protestants (cf. O. Braunsberger, Entstehung und erste Entwicklung der Katechismen des sel. P. Canisius, Freiburg im Breisgau 1893; S. P. Canisii Catechismi latini et germanici, ed. F. Striecher, Munich 1933). The first Italian version of the Summa doctrinae christianae appeared in Venice in 1560 and was the work of Fr. Angelo Dovizi.
III. THE CATECHISM OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
The Council, after mature deliberation and recognition of the people’s religious ignorance, had ordered the composition and publication of a manual which parish priests could use in preaching and catechizing, in order to expound Christian doctrine in logical order (Sess. XXIV, de reform., chap. 7; Sess. XXV), while leaving them free to alter the customary order (Creed, Sacraments, Commandments, Prayer) according to the needs of their hearers. The Council also sought to provide a single and uniform text, just as the rule of faith was single and uniform. Pius IV immediately appointed a commission composed of four eminent theologians: Leonardo Marini, archbishop of Lanciano; Muzio Calini, archbishop of Zara; Egidio Foscarini, bishop of Modena; and the Portuguese Dominican Francesco Foreiro, under the direction of s. Carlo Borromeo. After a year the draft was ready; it was then revised in classical Latin by the humanists Giulio Pogiani and Paolo Manuzio, who printed it under the title of Catechismus ex decreto Conc. Trid. ad parrochos (Rome 1566); it became better known by the common abbreviation Catechismus romanus. An Italian version, prepared at the Pope’s commission by the Dominican Alessio Figliucci, appeared immediately (ibid. 1566; cf. the recent version by L. Andrianopoli: Il c. romano del Conc. di Trento, Vatican City 1946); versions in other languages followed (cf. S. L. Skibniewski, Gesch. des röm. Katech., Rome 1903; P. Paschini, Il c. rom. del Conc. di Trento. Le sue origini e la sua prima diffusione, Rome 1923; Pastor, VII, pp. 288–92; VIII, pp. 133–34). The work was received with universal acclaim, and extracts and abridgements were also produced for the use of children.As regards authority and dogmatic value, it retains primacy over all similar works (cf. I. B. de Toth, De auctoritate dogmatica c. romani, Budapest 1941).
Following the fourfold division of the Roman catechism—1) Faith and the Creed; 2) Sacraments; 3) Commandments; 4) Pater and prayers—with the addition of a fifth part (virtues, works of mercy, sins, the last things), Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino composed, at the request of Cardinal Francesco Tarugi and by order of Clement VIII, his two most celebrated catechisms: Dottrina cristiana breve perché si possa imparare a mente (Rome 1597), in which the teacher asks the questions and the pupil answers; and Dichiarazione più copiosa della dottrina cristiana per uso di quelli che insegnano ai fanciulli e alle altre persone semplici (ibid. 1598), in which the pupil asks the questions and the teacher answers. Both works enjoyed exceptional success; but the first even more so, having gone through more than 351 editions and translations into 58 different languages and dialects, including those of mission countries (cf. Sommervogel, I, cols. 1187–1204; J. Brodrick, Blessed R. Bellarmin, I, London 1928, pp. 389–99; V. also the recent ed.: S. R. Bellarmino, I c., Milan 1941). S. Francesco di Sales used them in his catechesis and prescribed them to his priests. In Milan, Cardinal Federico Borromeo adopted them for his schools of Christian doctrine; later, however, they met with strong opposition from the Austrian government under the influence of Josephinism and the Enlightenment (cf. G. Schio, La « Dottrina cristiana » del b. R. Bellarmino prescritta nella Lombardia austriaca, in Civ. Catt., 1925, 1, pp. 403–15, 516–22). At the First Vatican Council, in the proposal for the compilation of a universal catechism, Bellarmino’s brief catechism was designated as the model.
IV. FROM THE COUNCIL OF TRENT TO THE PRESENT DAY
In the following centuries the production of catechisms multiplied to such an extent as to make even their simple enumeration impossible—and, moreover, useless. It will suffice to recall the catechisms of Cardinal Fleury (1679) and Bossuet (1687), which were particularly important because in them religious truths were derived from historical, especially biblical, facts; the catechism of St. Giovanni B. de la Salle (1703), entrusted to his Congregation of the Brothers of the Christian Schools; the three catechisms of Benedetto Strauch, the first for the memory, the second for the understanding, and the third for the will, immediately adopted by Abbot Ignazio Felbiger (to whom they are erroneously attributed) for the schools of Sagan in Silesia (hence the name “Sagan catechisms”) and later imposed on all the dioceses of Austria; the catechism of the Theatine Michele Casati, bishop of Mondovi (1765), which held the field throughout the nineteenth century; the catechism of Dupanloup (1862) and that of Rosmini (1838), composed “according to the order of ideas”; those of Cristoforo Schmid (1836) and finally of Giuseppe Deharbe (1847).Several catechisms appeared infected with Jansenism and Gallicanism and were therefore condemned by the Church; for example, those of Claudio Fleury (Paris 1695), Francesco Filippo Mesenguy (Utrecht 1744), Carlo Colbert de Croissy, bishop of Montpellier (Paris 1702), and Pietro Stefano Gourlien (ibid. 1777). The last three, translated into Italian and published in various editions, were adopted in their dioceses by Scipione de’ Ricci, bishop of Pistoia, and Andrea Sarao, bishop of Potenza (cf. F. Guara, Sui c. moderni. Saggio critico-teologico, Ferrara 1788). In Italy too, by decree of the viceroy Eugenio Beauharnais, the Napoleonic catechism was imposed in 1807; it was, doctrinally speaking, sound (translated from the Catechisme à l'usage de toutes les Eglises de France [Paris 1806]), but in it, under the fourth commandment, a special lesson was added: “Duties toward Napoleon I, our emperor-king.” This catechism aroused opposition from Pius VII, who did not wish the bishops to be deprived of the freedom to choose the catechism for their dioceses, since the power to teach the faith belongs to the episcopate. But the Pope was unable to prevent its publication (cf. DThC, II, cols. 1951–53).
V. IL C. UNICO UNIVERSALE. - The diversity of catechetical formularies has always been an inconvenience, and attempts have been made to remedy it ever since the need for a catechism-book arose. As early as the Council of Trent, consideration had been given to compiling a single text for the whole Church; but it was possible only to produce one for the use of parish priests and catechists, and nothing for the people. At the First Vatican Council, the question was taken up again and discussed at length; but the difficulties raised, arising from the variety of languages, characters, and needs of the various nations, were so great that the matter was not brought to a conclusion. A certain degree of unity has instead been achieved in some nations.
In Italy, the first attempt to unify the various catechisms was made by the bishops of Piedmont and Lombardy, who adopted, with slight revisions, the catechism of Msgr. Casati, bishop of Mondovì (1765). It was subsequently adopted also by the bishops of Liguria, Emilia, and Tuscany. Pius X, introducing some modifications, prescribed it (1905) for the dioceses of Rome and the Roman province, trusting that the others too would adopt it “in order thus to arrive at that single text, at least for all Italy, which is the universal desire.” In 1913, moreover, he issued the universal catechism, in which the material was reduced to what was strictly necessary, so as not to burden the minds of children excessively. In Austria, a single catechism was adopted in 1891; in Germany, in 1924, following the decision of the 1921 Fulda episcopal conference; in France, in 1928; and in Holland, in 1948. The episcopate of the United States of America, where the so-called Baltimore catechism had been in use since 1885, revised it and published the revision in 1941.
A noteworthy attempt was that of Cardinal Pietro Gasparri with his Catechismus catholicus (Vatican City 1930; Italian translation, Brescia 1932), in three parts or distinct catechisms: the first for children to be admitted to first Communion; the second for those who had already been admitted to it; and the third for adults; with copious notes on the sources and abundant testimonies from the councils, the Supreme Pontiffs, the Fathers of the Church, and the Roman Sacred Congregations. But it was not officially approved and imposed for the whole Church, and therefore remains a private work. - Vedi Tav. LXII.