Few objects from the pre-Roman era found in Lombard soil, with their primitive forms and crude ornamentation, belong more to the history of costume than to that of art. The artistic civilization of Imperial Rome left important monuments in Milan in the Columns of St. Lawrence, in Brescia in the remains of the Temple of Vespasian, in Sirmione in the ruins of a great villa, and in numerous pavement mosaics, statues, and bronzes, among which the Victory of Brescia is famous.
The legacy of Roman art, especially in the austere architectural forms and idealistic figurative aspects of the late Empire, remained alive throughout the Middle Ages, even if it was sometimes obscured or precariously overwhelmed by elements imported from the East and by barbarian invasions. To prove this, suffice it to mention the solemn architecture of the basilica of St. Lawrence in Milan (5th-6th century), closely linked to those of Ravenna, and the paleo-Christian museums of the annexed chapel of St. Aquilinus. Similarly, in Brescia, the massive church of St. Salvatore (8th century) reveals in its solid structure the function of late Roman art with Lombard elements; these latter are more evident in the carved decorations, which depart from naturalistic depictions to adhere to a world of fantasy, sometimes abstract, as evidenced by the remains of sculptures in the museums of Pavia, Como, Brescia, and Milan. An exceptionally important monument of the paleo-Christian era is the little chapel of Castel Seprio (Varese) with its frescoes, discovered a few years ago.
In the architecture of the 8th to 11th centuries, which saw the rise of very interesting constructions in Lombardy, the Magistri Comacini, originating from the region of Lake Como, played a notable role. To this period belong St. Peter in Cividate, St. Peter in Agliate, St. Vincent in Galliano; in Milan, the oldest parts of St. Eustorgius, St. Babylas, St. Celsus, as well as the apses of St. Ambrose and St. Vincent in Prato. The signs of the style of this period, aiming to achieve broad decorative effects, appear both in the sculptures, which are almost always ornamental in character, and in sacred furnishings, such as the ivories and silverworks of the treasuries in the churches of Monza, Brescia, and Milan. A unique monument of dazzling beauty is the silver, gem-studded, and enamelled antependium, the work of Vuolvinus (9th century), preserved in the basilica of St. Ambrose in Milan, in which Byzantine elements are blended with those of transalpine art.
In the Romanesque period (11th-13th centuries), all the arts, from architecture to painting, took on a more solemn grandeur, a more pronounced plastic sense, and returned more decisively to the Roman tradition. The prototype and model for Lombard religious architecture in this period is the basilica of St. Ambrose, with the solemn vault of its central nave and its harmonious plan. On this example, with variations and modifications over time, were modeled the churches of St. Michael, St. Theodore, and St. Peter in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia; while the churches of St. Fidelis and St. Abbondius in Como represent independent and equally ingenious solutions, as do the civil buildings of that time, from the Palazzo della Ragione in Milan to the Broletti of Brescia, Monza, and Como. But particularly in sculpture, Lombard Romanesque art assumed notable aspects with a renewed plastic and monumental sense: thus in the ciborium of St. Ambrose in Milan, in that of the church of St. Peter in Cividate, in the façade of St. Michael in Pavia, and in many other buildings. These tendencies are also evident in pictorial works, such as the important cycle of frescoes in St. Vincent in Galliano (c. 1007), the wall paintings of Cividate, those of the Torre d'Ampietro in Milan, and the apse decoration in the museums of St. Ambrose in Milan, to cite the principal ones.
In short, the flowering of Romanesque art in Lombardy was vast, and to the examples cited others must be added, such as the Rotunda of St. Lawrence and the Palazzo Bonacolsi in Mantua, the Cathedral with the Torrazzo in Cremona, and St. Eustorgius in Milan: solemn and severe architectures, often ablaze with fine brickwork.
In the 14th century, the flourishing development continued, but Gothic elements were added to and then superimposed upon the Romanesque ones, though almost always tempered by a sense of classical measure and balance. Only in the Duomo of Milan, begun in 1386, did Gothic architecture find an expression of Nordic flavor—and it remains the only example in Italy, original and admirable. Elsewhere, the harmonious balance of the Romanesque tradition prevailed over Gothic elements, as in the Duomo of Monza, built by Matteo da Campione at the end of the 14th century, in which Tuscan influence is felt. Indeed, a revival of artistic contacts with Tuscany took place at that time. Lombard sculpture, dominated by Balduccio da Pisa, who created, among other works, the admirable ark of St. Peter Martyr in the Church of St. Eustorgius in Milan, also imposed itself on the art of the Magistri Campionesi, flourishing in Lombardy.
But above all, Giotto’s stay in Milan was of great significance; he worked in the Ducal Palace in the last period of his life (frescoes unfortunately lost) and directed taste toward the new Tuscan painting. His followers worked in Lombardy, creating a new school, of which Giovanni da Milano is the most prominent figure. The fine cycles of Viboldone, Vertemate, Mocchirolo, and St. Mary in Solaro are fruits of this pictorial trend, in which, however, that spirit of Lombard taste—courtly and reminiscent of the north—known at the end of the 14th century in illumination as *ouvrage de Lombardie* is still felt. Giovanni de Grassi, painter and sculptor, represents at the close of the 14th century the artist who best embodies the "Gothic naturalism" of Lombardy and the current of the "International Gothic."
The Gothic taste persisted in Lombardy well into the 15th century. There were moments when it dominated the field of art, especially with the imposing construction of the Duomo of Milan, which continued in its soaring lines, its flying buttresses, its ogives, and its exceedingly slender spires. In Como, the façade of the Duomo rose in a strange florid Gothic style. In Milan itself, even after the middle of the century, buildings were still constructed in the Gothic style, such as the nave of St. Mary of Grace, St. Peter in Gessate, etc. Near Pavia, the Certosa arose, Gothic in its main lines.
It was shortly after the middle of the century that the Renaissance infiltrated Lombardy: Michelangelo built the Medici Palace and the Portinari Chapel in Milan; Filarete designed the greater hospital ordered by Francesco Sforza; Leon Battista Alberti created the models for the Temple of St. Sebastian and the basilica of St. Andrew in Mantua. But above all, it was the activity of Bramante that decided the shift in taste from Gothic to Renaissance. His works in Milan in St. Mary of Grace, in Pavia in the Duomo, in Vigevano in the Castle, and in Abbiategrasso in the façade of St. Mary constitute the milestones of the new architectural style, in which there is not merely a Tuscan transposition but a careful adaptation to the Lombard tradition. Guiniforte Solari, who built the Certosa of Pavia in its essential lines; Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, to whom the Colleoni Chapel in Bergamo is owed; and Giovanni Battaggio, who constructed the Incoronata in Lodi and St. Mary of the Cross in
Crema; Cristoforo Solari who erects the transept of Como Cathedral; Giangiacomo Dolcebuono who builds the greater monastery and transforms the interior of Santa Maria presso San Celso, are the leading representatives of the new rich and picturesque architectural style.
Some of these architects were also sculptors, such as Amadeo, and among the very first: his style was a blend of Gothic and Classical, with many Northern affinities in the taste for deep carving, with the “rocky” sense of drapery. Other excellent sculptors of the time included Benedetto Briosco, Cristoforo Solari, the Mantegazza brothers, and the Rodari. Similarly, in painting, still tied to the “International Gothic” throughout the first half of the fifteenth century—represented by the Zavattari with the Chapel of Theodolinda in Monza, as well as Leonardo da Besozzo and Michelino da Besozzo—the new style of Tuscan Renaissance gradually made its way. Masolino da Panicale, though still steeped in Gothic influences, worked in the Collegiate Church and the Baptistery of Castiglione Olona, and his creations, among the most refined of the period, formed the groundwork for further developments. From Tuscan and Mantegnesque art, Vincenzo Foppa of Brescia drew sustenance, with whom the Lombard Renaissance school of painting was established. His figure dominated for nearly half a century, until the early sixteenth century, followed by Butinone, Zenale, Civerchio, and Borgognone. In the last decades of the fifteenth century, Bramante worked in Lombardy also as a painter. His influence in Milan and Bergamo was considerable, as seen especially in Bartolomeo Suardi, known as Bramantino, an architect (Trivulzio Mausoleum, Milan) and exquisite painter, whose activity extended into the early decades of the sixteenth century. Andrea Mantegna’s art exerted great influence on the development of Lombard painting; he worked at the court of the Gonzaga in Mantua, leaving behind that monument of imperishable beauty, the *Camera degli Sposi*.
The presence of Leonardo in Milan marked the beginning of a new era in painting. Artists looked to him as to a new sun, as he was, and his works—such as the *Virgin of the Rocks*, the *Last Supper*, the *Sala delle Asse*, the equestrian monument to Sforza, and his portraits—were revelations. A host of young artists gathered around him; among them stood out Boltraffio, Giampietrino, Andrea Solario, Cesare da Sesto, Cesare Magni, and Bernardino Luini, who achieved a serene sweetness that left unforgettable pages in Lombard painting of the first half of the sixteenth century; and Gaudenzio Ferrari, in turn, added further refinements, as can be seen especially in the church of Saronno.
During this period other artists and schools emerged: in Brescia, Romanino and Moretto worked, the former formed by the examples of Giorgione in Venice, the latter more rooted in local tradition after Foppa, from whom Ferramola and Paolo da Cailina had already emerged. In Bergamo, Lorenzo Lotto channelled the spirit toward the renewed Venetian painting; and he was followed by Giambattista Moroni, an excellent portraitist. In Cremona, after the Bembo, the art of Boccaccino, followed by the Campi dynasty, dominated the pictorial scene. In Lodi, Bernardino and Callisto Piazza made their mark. In Mantua, an important artistic center, Giulio Romano worked and gave a new stamp to fresco art in the Palazzo del Te. In the second half of the sixteenth century, Mannerism spread widely, and the level of art declined. Nor did the painting of Tibaldi, Figino, or other mediocre artists suffice to revive II. But soon, through the vigorous impetus of Cardinals Carlo and Federico Borromeo, painting took on new vigor with works, all imbued with the ardent spirit of the Counter-Reformation, by Giulio Cesare Procaccini, Cerano, Morazzone, and finally Daniele Crespi, whose activity already extended into the early decades of the seventeenth century.
Fifteenth-century architecture, after the aforementioned flourishing that lasted until the early decades of that century, did not have a distinct character of its own in Lombardy. It was immigrant architects, such as the Perugian Galeazzo Alessi or the Bolognese Pellegrino Tibaldi, who left their mark on Lombard buildings of the time, mostly inspired by the rules of Vignola. Sculpture, however, had moments of high beauty, first with Agostino Busti, known as Bambaja, author of the (later dismantled) monument to Gaston of Foix, then with Leone Leoni, whose works brought the breath of Michelangelo’s art to Lombardy. Annibale Fontana, finally, with his exuberant forms, was already a child of the Baroque.
The seventeenth century, which began, as noted, under the auspices of the fervent Counter-Reformist activity of the Milanese Church, saw the rise of numerous buildings, mostly religious, largely through the work of two excellent Lombard architects, Fabio Mangone and Pier Maria Richini, the latter responsible for the monumental Palazzo di Brera. Sculpture adhered to the grandiose aims of architecture, in its essentially decorative character: no outstanding personalities emerged (except for the aforementioned Fontana and a few others), and only the Fantoni dynasty of wood sculptors from Rovetta near Bergamo, active from the mid-seventeenth to the mid-eighteenth century, deserves mention. Among the examples of Milanese decorative sculpture of the seventeenth century, the lower part of the façade of Milan Cathedral should also be noted, even for the strangeness of its insertion into the Gothic structure.
Nor did Lombard painting of the seventeenth century boast prominent artists, except for the Merisi, a native of Caravaggio, who trained for a time in Milan but soon moved to Rome without leaving any trace of his art in his homeland other than the small *Basket* now in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana. Alongside the painters of the Counter-Reformation, led by Cerano, others worked in the Lombard capital, such as the Fiamminghini, del Cairo, and Nuvoloni: among the latter, Carlo Francesco Nuvoloni, called Panfilo, excelled, and for the sweetness of his painting was also called the “Guido of Lombardy.” In Bergamo, Carlo Ceresa emerged as a portraitist of strength, a worthy follower of Moroni’s tradition. At the close of the seventeenth century, genre painting of landscapes and still lifes spread in Lombardy under the influence of Flemish, Spanish, and Dutch art. From Genoa, Alessandro Magnasco arrived in Milan with his scenes of witches, beggars, and friars, offering a vivid and striking mirror of the harsh life of the time under Spanish domination.
With the eighteenth century, Baroque gradually evolved into lighter, more welcoming forms, transforming into Rococo. Architecture became more cheerful, life and customs abandoned the heavy austerity of the seventeenth century. Villas, small palaces, and theaters became more frequent. Numerous palaces throughout Lombardy testify to the new taste. In Milan, the façade of Palazzo Litta with its stuccoes, Palazzo Archinto (destroyed by bombing in 1943), Palazzo Dugnani, and Palazzo Clerici with their frescoes by Tiepolo reflect the new artistic ideals. Sculpture was entirely devoted to exquisite decoration, stucco workers, carvers, and decorative painters flourished.
In painting, there are no outstanding figures besides the aforementioned Lissandrino, and for animal painting and still lifes, Crivellone; and only with the arrival of Tiepolo, who worked in Milan on Via Ambrogio (frescoes destroyed in 1943) and in Bergamo in the Colleoni Chapel, etc., does the tone become more elevated. Beside him are various Lombard artists, such as Raggi and Cesare Ligari, the latter a disciple of a family of painters from Sondrio. Another excellent painter of that time is Carlo Carboni from Scaria Intelvi, who left luminous frescoes in Italy and beyond the Alps. In easel painting, one should recall Giacomo Ceruti, known as Pitocchetto, author of delightful genre paintings, who worked mostly in Brescia; Vittore Ghislandi, known as Fra' Galgario, a vigorous portraitist with intense chromatic timbre, who worked mainly in Bergamo; and Giuseppe Bazzani, an airy and confident painter of altarpieces and "historical" paintings, who never left Mantua. In Milan, in the second half of the century, the archaic Francesco Londonio was active, with his sweetish landscapes in the Dutch taste.
Neoclassicism soon makes its appearance in Milan, mainly through the architect Giuseppe Piermarini from Foligno, who built the façade and redesigned the interior of the Royal Palace between 1770 and 1776, and between 1776 and 1778 constructed the Teatro alla Scala. Lodovico Pollack continues