Lombardy

LOMBARDY. - I. GEOGRAPHY. - As a natural region, L. embraces the territory bounded by the crest of the central Alpine zone and by the course of the Po between the Ticino and the Mincio; but the political (with Switzerland) and administrative boundaries, while excluding the northern Alpine part (the Swiss Canton Ticino), include strips of land beyond the Ticino (Lomellina), the Po (Oltrepò Pavese, Gonzaga and Sermide) and the Mincio (Goito and Ostiglia). Only in the Valtellina does L. reach the Alpine watershed, which it crosses with the small (307 sq. km.) projection of the Val Livigno. It is one of the largest, and the most populous, of the Italian regions, and in density of inhabitants it is surpassed only by Campania and Liguria, which are considerably less extensive.

The Lower L., corresponding to the central part of the Po-Venetian plain, remains almost everywhere below 200 m. and is in turn divided into upper and lower plain. The latter benefits from the springs (risorgive) that gush forth at the contact with the upper plain: agriculture and livestock raising (irrigated meadows) have there made possible the highest productivity achieved in Italy. The upper plain, formed by coarse and permeable alluvial deposits (heaths or groane), favors industrial crops (mulberry, flax) and vines, which are found, together with the olive, in the hilly zone, around the lakes and in the low pre-Alpine and Alpine valleys. The mountain belt, which closes L. to the N., rises to beyond 4000 m. (Bernina), but gives way to numerous passes (seven of them the most important, from the Gotthard to the Stelvio), which connect the Po plain with central Europe. The pre-Alps (of Lugano, Bergamo, Brescia), stretching from Lake Maggiore to Garda, are separated from the properly Alpine zone by a series of deep valleys (Morobbia, S. Jorio, Valtellina, Corteno).

L. is the Italian region that shows the highest development of industries: 47.5% of its active population is engaged in these (against 28.6% in agriculture, which nevertheless represents one of its economic bases). Every branch of industry flourishes there, but first of all the textile (with cotton mills in the lead), followed, in order of importance, by the iron and steel, metalworking, mechanical, chemical, and food (dairy) industries, etc. The zone of most intense industrial concentration corresponds to the provinces of Milan, Varese and Como, with an absolute predominance of the first. In commerce too L. is at the head of the Italian regions: about 1/5 of those employed in this activity in Italy are concentrated in L.

The population is very unevenly distributed, as is clear from the extremes of its density. Almost all the principal urban centers of L. rise in the plain

zone or at its edge. Apart from Sondrio, all the provincial capitals (besides Monza and Busto Arsizio) exceed 50 thousand inhabitants. Two of them (not counting Milan, which has by now surpassed a million) rank today among the cities with more than 100 thousand inhabitants (Brescia and Bergamo).

Giuseppe Caraci

II. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY

The name L. (medieval "Longobardia"), introduced by the Byzantines to indicate, in contrast to Romania, the territories occupied from the 6th century by the Lombards, after 888 was applied to the Carolingian March of Italy; under the Visconti the Ticino Valleys and the Valtellina were also called L.; the territories of Bergamo, Brescia and Mantua were aggregated to L. later; but already under the dukes vast territories beyond the Po and toward the Apennines formed part of L., which now includes in the Oltrepò only the province of Pavia. In antiquity it corresponds to the eastern part of the Transpadana (XI Augustan Region) and, from the Oglio to the Mincio, to the western part of Venetia (X Augustan Region), while the province of Pavia was Liguria, a circumscription which under Diocletian also included almost all of present-day L.

L. is now divided into the 9 provinces of Milan, Varese, Como, Sondrio, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, Cremona and Pavia; among the dioceses, 9 already existed in 1300, namely Milan, Lodi, Como, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, Cremona, Pavia and Bobbio; Bobbio was later abolished (v. BOBBIO).

The traditions, late and largely legendary, say that in Milan the apostle Barnabas himself introduced Christianity; that in Pavia St. Hermagoras, bishop of Aquileia, sent Sts. Syrus and Eventius to evangelize. In reality it emerges, above all from the catalogues of bishops, that in Milan the diocese would have been established around 200, in Brescia around 300, in Pavia in the middle of the 4th century or shortly before; in Bergamo, Lodi and Como in the middle of the 4th century, and later in Cremona. The first bishops would be: in Milan Anatolius, in Brescia Clatus, in Bergamo Namo, in Pavia Syrus, in Como Felix, in Lodi Bassianus. Christianity therefore entered L. as an organized institution not before the beginning of the 3rd century, and established itself throughout the whole territory only in the 2nd half of the 4th century; the oldest dated Christian inscription known so far is Milanese, from 244 (CIL, V, 6181). Uncertain, partly legendary, and fundamentally late is also the tradition of the martyrs in the Lombard region, which would trace them back to the Neronian age, whereas it is to be attributed to the 3rd century. The names of the principal martyrs will be recalled under the individual names of the places; the same will be done for the most illustrious bishops of the individual dioceses, but two names cannot be forgotten here, because they had, especially the first, a broad Lombard, indeed Italian, resonance: St. Ambrose (374-97), who extended the ecclesiastical province as far as the present-day Swiss district of Chur, and St. Charles Borromeo (1560-84), the principal architect of the Lombard "Counter-Reformation."

The prehistoric and historical vicissitudes of L. are extremely complex and varied: the presence of man in the Paleolithic is improbable; characteristic instead are the human dwellings of the Neolithic; those, for example, of the lower Cremonese area (Vhò, Cella Dati) and then of the Mantuan and Brescian areas; important is the Eneolithic age with the pile dwellings of Lake Varese and then the terremare between the Adda and the Mincio, then the Bronze Age (Cascina Ranza, Albarate). Famous for the Iron Age is the site of Golasecca, near Sesto Calende, and others in the Como, Milan, Pavia and Mantua areas. Around 500 the Etruscans penetrate it (Mantua, Melzo?); in 400 the Gauls, who give their name to the whole Po valley region. In the second half of the 3rd century B.C. the Romans penetrate it, and establish themselves there in the first half of the 2nd century, but for them L. did not represent a single and characteristic circumscription. Nor did the vicissitudes of the wars against the Alpine peoples and the imperial organization, and later the Arian-Catholic struggles, involve the whole region, but very often only a part of it.

Contested, occupied and harassed by the barbarians or by their antagonists the Heruli, Goths, Byzantines and finally the Lombards, L. was often prey to plundering and in its plains a battlefield for the various contenders. Sometimes abandoned by the other authorities, it found its only garrison and help, also for the protection of civil life, in its bishops, who often became actors and sometimes victims of every new order. Thus, while in 560 the Milanese bishop Honoratus found himself forced to move to Genoa, in Pavia, a new see established in hatred of Milan by the Lombard government, the distance between victors and vanquished was gradually bridged through coexistence, but the contrasts were reborn in another form in the struggle between Catholics and Arians.

In 645 the Ambrosian Church recovered its bishop and, renouncing the schismatic movements that had distanced it from Rome, made itself the champion of the conversion of the Lombards to Catholicism against Pavia, the stronghold of Arianism. Queen Theodelinda, who had her favourite residence at Monza, contributed to the victory of Catholicism, until at the arrival of Charlemagne's Franks, invoked by the Church of Rome, the last Lombard king, Desiderius, surrendered (774) in Pavia to the victor.

Thus Lombards, Franks and Romans coexisted for a century in L. until 888, when L., detached from the Carolingian Empire, gave its name to the Eastern March, dividing into the "comitati" of Milan, Pavia, Seprio, Bergamo, Lodi, Cremona, Mantua, to which Piacenza, Parma, Reggio and Modena were added. In the 9th century the struggle took place between the Lombard bishops and the lay feudal lords, who were gradually overpowered by the former, so that the bishops, and especially the Milanese metropolitan, became the most important political figures of the region: it is the time of Anspert and of the Ottonian kings of Germany, who relied here on the clergy to overcome the opposition of the feudal lords, and then the new struggle of the people against the prince-bishops began: in 933 Milan rebelled against Bishop Landulf; shortly afterwards Cremona against Bishop Olderic. The rise of the Commune was being prepared, sometimes favoured, sometimes opposed by the episcopal authority.

During the 11th-12th centuries the evolution from the feudal to the communal regime in L. was completed and the bishops participated in the general compromise with the result of now abandoning temporal dominion, a source of disorders, abuses and sometimes immorality; such abuses gave rise to the heretical movement of the Patarines, which took root especially in Milan and contributed to depressing the episcopal authority.

There follow the struggles of the Lombard Communes among themselves: Milan against Lodi and Como; Pavia against Tortona; Cremona against Crema; Bergamo against Brescia. Milan succeeded in forcibly coordinating around itself the activities of an ever wider array of neighbouring cities, until Frederick Barbarossa, intervening in L. for his own interests, thought it useful to provoke the resentments of the lesser cities against the dominant city; hence in 1162 came the destruction of Milan, with the collaboration of Pavia, Como and Lodi.

But the Lombard League once again strengthens the ties of the Communes against the Empire, and at Legnano (1176) Barbarossa is defeated. With the Peace of Constance there is a return to an agreement between the parties, bishops included, but then within the Communes the factions fighting among themselves become more pronounced (among other things, the Waldensians against the Catholics, the latter supported by the Humiliati), until at Cortenova (1237) the Communes are defeated by Frederick II: it is the time of the struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines, so that at Bergamo the Colleoni and the Suardo fight, at Pavia the Beccaria and the Langosco, at Como the Rusca and the Vittani, at Lodi the Vignati and the Vistarini, at Milan the Visconti and the Torriani. Meanwhile the commune of Milan increases through imperial concessions, territories and privileges, respecting elsewhere in Lombardy the great ecclesiastical fiefs, until in 1294 Matteo Visconti obtains from the Emperor the appointment as imperial vicar for Lombardy, with Milan, Como, Bergamo, Lodi, Cremona, Piacenza, Pavia and also Novara, Tortona, Vercelli and Alessandria subject to him. Thus is born the duchy of Milan, that is, the Lombard lordship, which gives unity to the region and prepares a great State in the center of the Po valley, tending toward Genoa and toward Bologna. Then the duchy is broken up into municipal particularism, which Francesco

(photo Enit)

Sforza seems to oppose for a short time, until the Peace of Lodi (1454). With Ludovico il Moro Lombardy still has a few moments of splendor, before, with his fall, it becomes the prey of foreigners, who consider it the fulcrum of Mediterranean hegemony. In fact, because of the outcome of the struggle between Francis I and Charles V, for almost 200 years Lombardy remains tied to Spain, on which it depends politically, economically and morally; not even ecclesiastical property resists the fiscalism from beyond the Alps.

At the beginning of the 18th century Vienna replaces Spain in Lombardy, so that from then on this region (while still forming part of the more general movement of Italian enlightened reformism) is tied to Austrian interests until 1796, when the French army enters Lombardy, inaugurating a period of French predominance; thus the Cisalpine Republic is created, including the Valtellina, and then the Italian Republic (1802) and therefore (1805) the Kingdom of Italy, until the return of the Austrians, after the Congress of Vienna (1815). It is the period in which, in the conflicts with Austria, the first revolutionary ferment matures in Lombardy with Young Italy (1821); in 1848 with the five days of Milan and the ten days of Brescia the revolution explodes, driving the Austrians back to the Mincio; the vote of the Lombards was then for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia, but the armistice of Salasco brought the Austrians back into the region. Then the conspiracies resumed, culminating in the insurrection of 1853, until the war of 1859 and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy, of which Lombardy then became a part; after which the Lombard region was one of the most active and meritorious of the Italian State.

The Catholic religious spirit is still largely alive throughout Lombardy and especially at Bergamo and throughout the Bergamasque region. Such a wide diffusion of religious spirit has a whole long history, which goes back to episodes of religious struggles, epidemics, wars and dangers, and is manifested in the rise and flourishing of almost 150 sanctuaries especially dedicated to the Virgin, which are characteristic especially in the hilly and mountainous area of the region.

Among those with the most ancient traditions, reference being made also to the various localities, the following are remembered: S. Maria del Sacro Monte di Varese, which goes back to the Ambrosian age and was famous especially at the time of the anti-Arian struggle; S. Maria dell'Aiuto, at Mantua, venerated since the 8th century; S. Pietro near Civate, at the foot of the Corni di Canzo, a sanctuary founded for a vow of the last Lombard king, Desiderius (d. 774); S. Maria delle Grazie of Brescia, with a venerated image of the Nativity, and the Madonna di Campione on Lake Lugano are from the 13th century; santuries of the 15th century are S. Maria dei Miracoli near S. Celso in Milan, S. Maria dei Miracoli in Brescia, the Incoronata in Lodi, the B. Vergine di Caravaggio, the Madonna di Galle-

S. Maria della Croce in Crema, the B. Vergine dei [sic] in Saronno, the sanctuary of St. Jerome Miani in Vercurago (Lecco), named after the founder of the Somaschi, and still from the beginning of the 16th century are the Madonna di Tirano, the B. Vergine dell'Aiuto of Busto Arsizio, that of the Madonna delle Lagrime of Treviglio, erected in memory of the deliverance obtained in 1522 from the threats of Marshal Lautrec, S. Maria delle Grazie in Milan, and the sanctuary of the Addolorata of Rho; from the 17th century are the Madonna della S. Casa of Treviso (Valtellina), the Madonna del Bosco near Merate, the B. Vergine of Lezzeno above Bellano, S. Maria delle Grazie near Mantua. A certain number of these sanctuaries are on the mountains: the Madonna del Ghisallo near Asso in Valassina, S. Maria della Cornabusa near Cepino in Valle Imagna, partly hollowed out of a cave; the Madonna della Seriola on Montisola in the middle of Lake Iseo and the sanctuary of the Alpe di S. Colombano, near Bormio, almost 2500 meters above sea level.

Aristide Calderini

III. CONCILIAR REGION

The Lombard conciliar ecclesiastical region extends within the boundaries of the ecclesiastical province of Milan and does not everywhere coincide with the boundaries of the civil administrative region. It groups around the metropolitan see of Milan the suffragan bishoprics of Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Crema, Cremona, Lodi, Mantua, and Pavia.

A characteristic of the archdiocese of Milan is the present persistence of the so-called Ambrosian rite which, reorganized by St. Charles Borromeo, reveals its distinctly Latin stamp, even while distinguishing itself from the Roman rite in significant peculiarities. The districts of Monza, Trezzo d'Adda and Ghignolo Po, and the towns of Civate, Varenna and Sesto Calende are exceptions. Conversely, the Ambrosian rite is also followed by some towns of the diocese of Bergamo, in the Valle Cannobina of the diocese of Novara, and in some Swiss localities near Lake Lugano.

The episcopal conferences of the Lombard region are convened and presided over each year by the archbishop of Milan or, in his place, by the most worthy and most senior bishop of the region (S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, 24 Aug. 1889; S. Consistorial Congregation, 15 Feb. 1919 and 22 March 1919; S. Congregation of the Council, 21 June 1932), who, assisted by the secretary of the conferences, coordinates their work and submits their deliberations to the S. Congregation of the Council, for the necessary approval and any observations.

Since the whole region forms a single ecclesiastical province, the decree of 15 Feb. 1919 exempts it from the obligation of holding the regional plenary council there: therefore it follows the common norms of can. 283 ff. as regards the convocation and presidency of the provincial council.

The regional tribunal with matrimonial competence has its seat in Milan and is a tribunal of first instance for the Lombard dioceses enumerated above, and of second instance or appeal for the regional tribunals of Turin and Venice (motu proprio: Qua Cura, 8 Dec. 1938; Normae of the S. Congregation of the Sacraments, 10 July 1940). The tribunal of appeal for the Lombard region is the Ligurian regional tribunal.

Agostino Pugliese

IV. ART

The dawn of art in L. coincides with the advent of Roman civilization in this region (the scanty objects of the pre-Roman era found in Lombard territory, with their primordial forms and coarse ornamentation, belong rather to the history of custom than to that of art). The artistic civilization of imperial Rome left important monuments at Milan in the Columns of S. Lorenzo, at Brescia in the remains of the temple of Vespasian, at Sirmione in the ruins of a great villa, and in numerous floor mosaics, and in statues and bronzes, among which the Victory of Brescia is famous.

The legacy of Roman art, especially in the austere architectural forms and the idealistic figurative aspects of the late Empire, remained alive throughout the Middle Ages, even if at times it was mingled with or precariously overwhelmed by elements imported from the East and by the barbarian invasions. Suffice it to prove this: the solemn architecture of the basilica of S. Lorenzo in Milan (5th-6th century), closely linked to those of Ravenna, and the paleochristian mosaics of the adjoining chapel of S. Aquilino. And likewise at Brescia, the massive church of S. Salvatore (8th century) reveals in its solid structure the function of late-Roman art with Lombard elements; the latter are more evident in the decorations carved in a style that has moved away from naturalistic figurations to adhere to a world of fantasy, at times abstract, as the remains of sculptures in the museums of Pavia, Como, Brescia again, and Milan likewise indicate. An exceptionally important monument of the paleochristian era is the little chapel of Castelseprio (Varese) with its frescoes, discovered a few years ago.

In the architecture of the centuries from the 8th to the 11th, which saw the birth in L. of highly interesting buildings, the Maestri Comacini, natives of the region of Lake Como, played a very notable role. To this era belong S. Pietro in Civate, S. Pietro d'Agliate, S. Vincenzo in Galliano; at Milan, the oldest parts of S. Eustorgio, S. Babila, S. Celso, as well as the apses of S. Ambrogio and S. Vincenzo in Prato. The signs of the style of this period, tending to achieve broad decorative effects, appear both in the sculptures, which are almost always ornamental in character, and in the sacred furnishings, as in the ivories and silverwork of the treasures in the churches of Monza, Brescia, and Milan. A unique monument of glowing beauty is the silver, gem-studded and enameled antependium, the work of Vuolvinio (9th century), preserved in the basilica of S. Ambrogio in Milan, in which Byzantine elements are wedded to those of transalpine art.

In the Romanesque era (11th-13th century) all the arts, from architecture to painting, take on a more solemn grandeur, a more marked plastic sense, and return more decisively to the Roman tradition. The forebear and model for Lombard religious architecture in this period is the basilica of S. Ambrogio, with the solemn vault of its central nave and its harmonious pronaos. On this example are modeled, with variants and modifications in the evolution of time, the churches of S. Michele, S. Teodoro, and S. Pietro in Ciel d'oro at Pavia; while the churches of S. Fedele and S. Abbondio in Como constitute solutions independent of it and equally ingenious, as indeed also appears in the civil buildings of that time, from the Palazzo della Ragione in Milan to the Broletti of Brescia, Monza, and Como. But particularly in sculpture Lombard Romanesque art assumes, with a renewed plastic and monumental sense, notable aspects: thus in the ciborium of S. Ambrogio in Milan, in that of the church of S. Pietro in Civate, in the facade of S. Michele in Pavia, and in many other buildings. Such tendencies manifest themselves, moreover, also in pictorial works, as in the important cycle of frescoes of S. Vincenzo in Galliano (ca. 1007), in the wall paintings of Civate, in those of the Torre d'Anspeto in Milan, and in the apse decoration in mosaic of S. Ambrogio, again in Milan, to cite the principal ones.

In short, the flowering of Romanesque art in L. was vast, and to the examples cited others will still have to be added, such as the Rotonda di S. Lorenzo and the Palazzo Bonaccolesi in Mantua, such as the Cathedral with the Torrazzo and the Baptistery at Cremona, and S. Eustorgio in Milan: solemn and severe architectures, often blazing with beautiful brickwork.

In the fourteenth century the luxuriant development continues, but to the Romanesque elements are added, and then superimposed upon them, the Gothic ones, almost always, moreover, tempered by a sense of classical measure and balance. Only in the cathedral of Milan, begun in 1386, does Gothic architecture find an expression of its own with a Nordic flavor: and it remains also the only example of it in Italy, original and admirable. Elsewhere the harmonious balance of the Romanesque tradition prevails over the Gothic elements, as in the cathedral of Monza, built by Matteo da Campione at the end of the fourteenth century, in which the Tuscan influence is felt. A revival, in fact, of artistic contacts with Tuscany takes place in that era. And Lombard sculpture, dominated by Balduccio da Pisa, who creates, among other things, the admirable ark of St. Peter Martyr in the Church of S. Eustorgio in Milan, also asserts itself over the art of the Campionese Masters flourishing in Lombardy.

But above all the stay of Giotto in Milan was of great moment; he worked in the Ducal Palace in the last period of his life (frescoes unfortunately lost), and directed taste toward the new Tuscan painting. His followers work in Lombardy, creating a new school there; and Giovanni da Milano is its most distinctive personality. The beautiful cycles of Vibolone, of Vertemate, of Mocchiolo, of S. Maria in Solaro are the fruit of this pictorial direction, in which, however, is felt that spirit of "Lombard" taste, courtly and breathing of the north, which at the close of the fourteenth century was known in miniature painting as ouvrage de Lombardie. Giovannino de Grassi, painter and sculptor, represents at the close of the 14th century the artist who best personifies "Lombard Gothic naturalism" and the current of the "International Gothic."

Gothic taste persisted in Lombardy also for a good part of the fifteenth century. There were moments in which it dominated the field of art, especially with the imposing construction of the cathedral of Milan, which continued in its ascending lines, its flying buttresses, its ogives, its most slender spires. At Como the facade of the Cathedral arose, of a strange flamboyant Gothic. In Milan itself, still shortly after the middle of the century, building was done in "Gothic," such as the nave of S. Maria delle Grazie, S. Pietro in Gessate, etc. And near Pavia arose the Certosa, Gothic in its principal lines.

It was immediately after the middle of the century that the Renaissance infiltrated into Lombardy: Michelozzo built in Milan the Palazzo Mediceo and the Portinari chapel, Filarete the Ospedale Maggiore commissioned by Francesco Sforza; Leon Battista Alberti formed the models for the temple of S. Sebastiano and for the basilica of S. Andrea in Mantua. But above all it was the activity of Bramante that decided the change of taste from Gothic to Renaissance. His works in Milan at S. Maria delle Grazie, in Pavia at the Cathedral, in Vigevano at the Castle, in Abbiategrasso at the facade of S. Maria, constitute the milestones of the new architectural style: in which, moreover, there is not a mere Tuscan transposition but a shrewd adaptation to the Lombard tradition. Guiniforte Solari, who built in its essential lines the Certosa of Pavia; Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, to whom the Cappella Colleoni in Bergamo is owed; Giovanni Battaggio who builds the Incoronata of Lodi and S. Maria della Croce in Crema; Cristoforo Solari, who erects the transept of the cathedral of Como; Giangiacomo Dolcebuono, who builds the Monastero Maggiore and transforms the interior of S. Maria presso S. Celso, are the major representatives of the new architectural style, rich and picturesque.

Some of these architects were also sculptors, such as Amadeo, and among the very foremost: his was a style blending Gothic and classical, with many Nordic analogies in the taste for deep carving, and a "rocky" sense in the draperies. Lombardy then counted other excellent sculptors in Benedetto Briosco, in Cristoforo Solari, in the Mantegazza, in the Rodari. Likewise in painting, still tied to the "international Gothic" throughout the first half of the fifteenth century — its exponents being the Zavattari with the chapel of Teodolinda at Monza, as well as Leonardo da Besozzo and Michelino da Besozzo — the new style of the Tuscan Renaissance gradually made its way. Masolino da Panicale, in truth still wholly steeped in Gothicizing spirits, worked in the Collegiata and in the baptistery of Castiglione Olona, and his creations, among the most exquisite of the period, formed the humus for further developments. From Tuscan art and from that of Mantegna drew nourishment Vincenzo Foppa of Brescia, with whom the Lombard painting school of the Renaissance came into being. His figure dominated for almost half a century, down to the beginnings of the sixteenth century, followed by Butinone, by Zenale, by Civerchio, by Borgognone. In the last decades of the fifteenth century the work of Bramante unfolded in Lombardy also as a painter. His ascendancy in Milan and in Bergamo was very notable, as was seen especially in Bartolomeo Suardi, called il Bramantino, architect (Trivulzio Mausoleum, Milan) and exquisite painter, whose activity continued down to the first decades of the sixteenth century. Of great weight in the developments of Lombard painting is the art of Andrea Mantegna, who worked at the court of the Gonzaga in Mantua, where he left that monument of imperishable beauty which is the "Camera degli sposi."

The presence of Leonardo in Milan marks the beginning of a new pictorial era. Artists looked to him as to a new sun, which he was, and his works, such as the Virgin of the Rocks, the Last Supper, the Sala delle Asse, the equestrian monument to Sforza, the portraits, were so many revelations. A host of young men gathered around him; and among them stood foremost Boltraffio, Giampietrino, Andrea Solario, Cesare da Sesto, Cesare Magni. Bernardino Luini attained a serene sweetness that marked unforgettable pages in Lombard painting of the first half of the sixteenth century; and Gaudenzio Ferrari added, in his turn, other refinements, as may be seen especially in the church of Saronno.

In this period other artists, other schools arose: in Brescia worked Romanino and Moretto, the former formed on Giorgionesque models in Venice, the latter rather grown in the local tradition after Foppa, from whom Ferramola and Paolo da Cailina had already sprung. In Bergamo, the figure of Lorenzo Lotto channeled spirits onto the path of the renewed Venetian painting; and he was followed by Giambattista Moroni, an excellent portraitist. In Cremona, after the Bembo, the art of Boccaccino, followed by the dynasty of the Campi, dominated the pictorial situation. In Lodi Bernardino and Callisto Piazza asserted themselves. In Mantua, an important center of art, Giulio Romano worked and gave a new imprint to the art of fresco in the Palazzo del Te. In the second half of the sixteenth century Mannerism spread and the level of art declined. Nor was the painting of Tibaldi, or of Figino, or of other mediocre artists enough to raise it again. But soon, through the energetic impulse of cardinals Carlo and Federigo Borromeo, painting took new flights with the works, all marked by the ardent spirit of the Counter-Reformation, of Giulio Cesare Procaccini, of Cerano, of Morazzone, and finally of Daniele Crespi, whose activity already penetrates into the first decades of the seventeenth century.

The architecture of the sixteenth century, after the aforementioned flowering that lasted until the first decades of this century, has in Lombardy no distinctly characteristic face of its own. It was immigrant architects, such as the Perugian Galeazzo Alessi, or the Bolognese Pellegrino Tibaldi, who gave their imprint to the Lombard buildings of the time, inspired for the most part by the rules of Vignola. Sculpture, on the other hand, had moments of high beauty first with Agostino Busti, called il Bambaja, author of the monument (later dismembered) of Gaston de Foix, then with Leone Leoni, whose works bring into Lombardy the breath of Michelangelo's art. Annibale Fontana, finally, with his redundant forms, is already a son of the Baroque.

The seventeenth century, which begins, as has been said, under the auspices of the fervent Counter-Reformation activity of the Milanese Church, sees the rise of numerous buildings, largely religious, through the work above all of two excellent Lombard architects, Fabio Mangone and Pier Maria Richini, the latter the author of the monumental Palazzo di Brera. Sculpture adhered to the magniloquent aims of architecture, in its essentially decorative character: no outstanding personalities arose (save the aforementioned Fontana and a few others), and only the dynasty of the wood sculptors Fantoni, from Rovetta near Bergamo, working from the mid-seventeenth century to the mid-eighteenth, is to be mentioned. Among the examples of Milanese decorative sculpture of the seventeenth century, mention should be made, also for the strangeness of its grafting onto the Gothic body, of the lower part of the facade of the cathedral of Milan.

Nor in painting are there in the Lombard seventeenth century any preeminent artists, if one excepts Merisi, a native of Caravaggio, educated for some time in Milan, but soon transferred to Rome without leaving in his homeland any other sign of his art besides the small "basket" now in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana. Alongside the painters of the Counter-Reformation, led by Cerano, others worked in the Lombard capital, such as the Fiamminghini, the del Cairo, the Nuvoloni: among the latter an excellent one was Carlo Francesco Nuvoloni, called Panfilo, who, for the sweetness of his painting, was also called the "Lombard Guido." In Bergamo there was, with Carlo Ceresa, a portraitist of vigor, a worthy follower of the Moroni tradition. Toward the close of the seventeenth century there spread in Lombardy "genre" painting of landscape, of still lifes under the influence of Flemish, Spanish, Dutch art. From Genoa there arrived in Milan Alessandro Magnasco with his scenes of witches, of beggars, of friars, and he offers a vivid and impressive mirror of the life of that time, harshly oppressed by Spanish domination.

With the eighteenth century the Baroque gradually moved toward lighter and more welcoming forms, was transformed into the Rococo. Architecture became more cheerful, life itself, customs left behind the heavy austerity of the seventeenth century. Villas, small palaces, theaters arose more frequently. Numerous palaces throughout Lombardy testify to the new taste. In Milan the facade of the Palazzo Litta with its stuccoes, the Palazzo Archinto (destroyed by the bombings of 1943), the Palazzo Dugani, the Palazzo Clerici with their frescoes by Tiepolo reflect the new artistic ideals. Sculpture is wholly directed to purposes of exquisite decoration; stucco-workers, carvers, decorative painters flourished.

But in painting there are no salient figures, beyond that, mentioned above, of the Lissandrino and, for the painting of animals and still lifes, of the Crivellone; and only with the coming of Tiepolo, who worked in Milan in more than once (also in the church of S. Ambrogio, with frescoes destroyed in 1943) and at Bergamo in the Colleoni chapel, etc., the tone becomes loftier. Alongside him range various Lombard artists, such as Raggi and Cesare Ligari, the latter a descendant of a family of painters from Sondrio. Another excellent painter of that time is Carlo Carboni da Scaria Intelvi, who left luminous frescoes in Lombardy and beyond the Alps. In easel painting mention must be made of Giacomo Ceruti, called il Pitocchetto, author of pleasing "genre" pictures, who worked mostly at Brescia; Vittore Ghislandi, called fra' Galgario, a vigorous portraitist of intense chromatic timbre, who worked mainly at Bergamo; and Giuseppe Bazzani, an airy and easy painter of altarpieces and "historical" pictures, who never left Mantua. At Milan, in the second half of the century, the arcadian Francesco Londonio was active, with his cloyingly sweet landscapes in the Dutch taste.

Neoclassicism soon made its appearance at Milan, principally with the architect Giuseppe Piermarini da Foligno, who built the front and remodeled the interior of the Palazzo Reale between 1770 and 1776, and between 1776 and 1778 erected the Teatro della Scala. Lodovico Pollack continues this severe style, which then dominated unchallenged until the middle of the nineteenth century, with the architects Cantoni, Cagnola, Albertolli, Perego, etc. "Baroque" painting was replaced by the classicizing painting of Traballesi, of Knoller, and above all by that of Andrea Appiani.

Romanticism was led, in painting, by Francesco Hayez first, then by Domenico and Gerolamo Induno at Milan, by Giovanni Carnevali called il Piccio at Bergamo. From these sources the painters of the Lombard scapigliatura drew nourishment, such as Daniele Ranzoni and Tranquillo Cremona, joined by the pre-impressionist sculptor Giuseppe Grandi.

The development of nineteenth-century Lombard painting is concluded by Giovanni Segantini with his followers Previati, Grubicy and other "divisionists." In architecture Romanticism assumed mostly inferior aspects, with fictitious revivals of medieval styles. - See plates CI-CIII.