Veneto

VENETO. - It is the entire region comprised between the Alpine arc, Lake Garda, the Mincio, the Po and the Adriatic. It is divided into three distinct units: Trentino-Alto Adige; V., or Venezia Euganea; Friuli-Venezia Giulia.

I. GEOGRAPHY.

I. TRENTINO-ALTO ADIGE

It comprises the basin of the Adige upstream of the Salorno gorge, the Sarca valley with a strip of Lake Garda and the headwaters of some Lombard rivers (Chiese) and Venetian rivers (Astico, Cimone, Piave); besides being divided into the two provinces, it is divided into the numerous small units that form some of its major valleys (di Non, di Sole, di Fassa, di Fiemme, Val Sugana, Val Pusteria, etc.).

It is the northernmost and most mountainous region of Italy: of its area (13,602 sq km, of which 6,202 are in Trentino) half is covered by woods, predominantly conifers, and a quarter by pastures, while crops occupy the valley floors, especially of the major ones (Val d'Adige), where the population is concentrated. Wheat and maize prevail in Trentino, rye in Alto Adige, potato more or less everywhere. Fruit-bearing tree crops are widely diffused, especially in the basins of Merano and Bolzano, and so is the vine; the olive only in the region

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of Garda. Livestock breeding is of modest importance there. Mineral resources are not lacking, but they are of small extent; nevertheless industry has been stimulated by the great development of hydroelectric plants.

The population (729 thousand inhabitants) is entirely Italian in Trentino, mixed in Alto Adige, where there are 195 thousand German speakers and 17 thousand Ladin speakers. On 28 Nov. '48 the region officially called Trentino - Alto Adige received a Special Statute, which recognizes equal rights for the Italian and German languages. Of the 48 thousand Germans who in 1939 opted for Austria and emigrated there, although they are authorized to return to Alto Adige, only 5,000 have in fact resettled there (up to 1951). Besides the two provincial capitals, mention should be made of Merano (28 thousand inhabitants), one of the best-known climatic resorts in Europe, and Rovereto (22 thousand inhabitants), a notable industrial town.

II. THE VENETO OR EUGANEAN VENICE

It results from the north-eastern part of the Po plain, watered by rivers independent of the Po, with most of the lagoons that extend to the E. of it, from a belt of pre-Alpine and sub-Alpine reliefs existing from Lake Garda to the Livenza; and from the southern slope of the Dolomitic Alps. Of its territory (18,385 sq. km.; since the province of Udine, or Friuli, which was previously included in it, passed to Venezia Giulia), one half is flat, the other half is formed of mountains and hills. Agriculture is flourishing, especially in the lower plain, that is, downstream of the springs, and yields above all cereals (wheat and maize), fodder, grapes, fruit, and especially in the Polesine (between the Po and the Adige), sugar beets, hemp, and tobacco. The mulberry is widespread, feeding an intense rearing of silkworms. The hill country too, where the olive tree thrives here and there, is rich in orchards and vineyards, while in the mountain zones, covered with forests and abounding in pastures, the main resources are given by silviculture and (cattle) breeding, with the associated dairy industry (butter and cheese). Industry has made notable progress in recent years (especially in textiles), by virtue of the development of hydroelectric plants and the impetus given to the great center of Porto Marghera (extractive, iron and steel, mechanical industries, shipyards), which rises in the vicinity of Venice, the city toward which most of the region's traffic converges, and which is in fact its only maritime emporium.

The population (nearly 4 million inhabitants), which has a density far above the Italian average, lives to a large extent gathered in urban centers, many of which are of ancient origin, such as Verona, at the outlet of the great Brenner route, and Padua, the most populous mainland city, at the center of a flourishing agricultural district. Founded in the early Middle Ages, Venice, after a period of great prosperity (trade with the Levant), followed by a slow decline, has risen again thanks to its still favorable geographical position, although hampered by the growing competition of the other Adriatic ports.

Besides the provincial capitals, the Venezia Euganea counts about ten cities each with over 20 thousand inhabitants, all inland - except Chioggia (49 thousand inhabitants), a fishing port of notable importance - and sometimes developed as industrial centers (Schio, Valdagno).

III. VENEZIA GIULIA

Within the limits of physical Italy, Venezia Giulia extends over approximately 9,000 sq km and comprises the inner slope of the Julian Alps, the Karst plateau, the Istrian peninsula, and the Quarnaro Islands. After the Second World War, Italy retained only a strip on the left bank of the Isonzo, with the city of Gorizia, itself grazed by the Yugoslav border. To these 469 sq km of territory of the old disputed area of Gorizia and Gradisca (which alone measures about 3,000) there is added, in the meaning given today to the regional toponym, Friuli or the province of Udine, which essentially reproduces the characteristics of the neighboring V.

The population (928 thousand inhabitants) consists almost entirely of Italians (speaking a Ladin dialect), with small Slovene minorities. Besides the provincial capitals, only two inhabited centers exceed 20,000 inhabitants: Pordenone (27 thousand inhabitants), the largest industrial center of Friuli (cotton mill), and Monfalcone (24 thousand inhabitants), at the foot of the Karst plateau, also important for its industries (shipyards).

Giuseppe Caraci

# II. HISTORY.

The territory inhabited by the Euganei is probably to be connected with the Ligurian Ingauni. Neolithic and Eneolithic artifacts, burial grounds with tombs and inhumation pits, particularly in the area of Este, are attributed to this people or to other prehistoric populations. The Veneti, coming from the Indo-European stock, like other ancient Italic peoples of the Iron Age, immigrated, at an unspecified time, to settle in the "upper part of the Adriatic Sea, driving out the Euganei who dwelt between the sea and the Alps" (Livy, I, 1).

The life and civilization of the Veneti are sufficiently documented in the Bronze Age, by hillforts in Venezia Giulia and the Trentino, by pile dwellings on Lake Garda to be referred to the same period as the terramare of Emilia, by necropolises and various objects of the early Iron Age in eastern Venetia (S. Lucia near Tolmin in the Isonzo valley, Caporetto, S. Canziano in the surroundings of Trieste, in the Karst, at Cividale and S. Pietro al Natisone) and by similar burial grounds in the provinces of Padua, Treviso, Belluno, Verona, Trentino and Alto Adige. These artifacts lend themselves to comparisons with those of Este (Ateste), the most notable and important center of Venetic civilization, a city that takes its name from the Adige "Athesis," a river flowing here without banks, as two Roman inscriptions in the Atestine Museum document, and which then, because of the flood of 589, opened into another bed 19 km away, in the Polesine. The Atestine Museum houses the antiquities and monuments of Euganean-Venetic civilization, divided into three periods: Italic, Venetic and Gallic. The Venetic period lasts until the 3rd century B.C., and its artistic manifestations take a direction different from that prevailing in Emilia: the Villanovan ossuary (from Villanova near Bologna, whence Villanovan civilization) is replaced by a bronze situla (bucket), or an imitation thereof: famous is the Benvenuti situla in repoussé bronze, divided into three zones and series of figurations of the Veneti: producers of situlae (bronzesmiths), farmers, warriors. On stelae, tablets, sheets and vases is engraved the alphabet of the Paleo-Venetic language, which, for lack of bilingual inscriptions, awaits its interpreter and revealer.

After the Etruscan domination, in the 5th and 4th centuries the Celts migrated into the Veneto, stopping at the Adige. The Veneti, having remained masters of Vicenza and Ateste, their advanced frontiers, were able to give the Romans valuable help by fighting the terrible neighbors while other hordes of these had advanced toward the center of Italy as far as to attack Rome. "Only at a later time do we find the region of the Carnic Alps also in the power of the Celts; from Germany, where numerous Gallic tribes were settled, they infiltrated into the valleys of present-day Carnia, Carinthia and Carniola; they are known precisely under the names of Taurisci and Carni and, on the side of the Alps which were later called Julian, they came to be neighbors of the Istrians and the Iapodes, while they put themselves in a position to press upon the Veneti dwelling in the plain. However, when they might have attempted a conquest on this side, they found themselves facing an adversary far stronger than the Veneti: the Romans, who in 222 B.C. defeated the Celts in Cisalpine Gaul and took Milan, and thus also the Cenomani and the Veneti, by love or by force, had to accept their alliance" (P. Paschini, Storia del Friuli, I, Udine 1934, p. 10).

In 181 B.C. the Romans founded in Carnic-Illyrian territory the Latin colony of Aquileia, destined to be later a great emporium of the Roman world; from Aquileia they moved victoriously against the Istrians (178-177 B.C.) and with the consul Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus against the Carni, the Taurisci and the Iapodes (129 B.C.); after the Social War (89 B.C.) Aquileia is a municipium with administrative autonomy, and the cities of the Veneto, by the Pompeian law, are assimilated to colonies of Latin right, such as Padua, Este, Vicenza.

After the conquests and victories of Augustus over the transalpine peoples and the Pannonians, the frontier of the Empire was brought to the Danube; in the Augustan division of Italy into 11 regions, Aquileia becomes the capital of the X region "Venetia et Histria," comprising the territory from the Adda to the Carnic and Julian Alps, shifting the boundaries of Italy from the river Formicone (present-day Risano) as far as the Arsa, thus including with Pola almost the entire Istrian peninsula; in the territory of the X region, already occupied by the Gallic Cenomani, arise the cities of Brescia, Cremona, Trento, Verona, Mantua; in the territory of the Veneti, between the Po and the Livenza: Padua, Vicenza, Este, Altino, Adria, Oderzo, Belluno, Feltre; between the Livenza and the Risano: Concordia (a Roman colony, founded in 41 B.C.), Aquileia, Trieste (Tergeste), Cividale (Forum Iulii), Zuglio (Iulium Carnicum), Longatico, Nauporto, Ljubljana; in Istrian territory: Pola, Parenzo, Nesazio; while the rest of Istria with Albona, Fianona and the coast along the Quarnaro (Liburnia) continued to be part of Illyricum (v. the individual entries). Augustus showed particular interest in Aquileia, also in relation to his plans of expansion toward Pannonia and the Danube, and organically linked the road arteries to it.

After Augustus, the history of the Veneto is subordinate to the history of the Empire: to be remembered are the invasion of the Quadi and Marcomanni (169 A.D.), who destroyed Oderzo (v.), the various works of fortification, episodes such as the "bellum Aquileiense," which ended with the victory of the Roman Senate and with the killing of the emperor Maximinus and his son beneath the walls of Aquileia (238 A.D.), the victory of Constantine at Verona over Ruricius Pompeianus, general of Maxentius (312 A.D.), and furthermore the victorious war of Theodosius against the rebels Maximus (388), Eugenius and Arbogast in the Frigidus valley (395), the invasions of the Visigoths, led by Alaric, which brought grave damage and destruction to the Veneto (401-10), the various incursions of barbarians and particularly of Attila (452) with sackings and burnings, of Theodoric, who defeated (489) Odoacer east of Verona, where he then built his royal palace: Aquileia, with Venetia and Istria, formed part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, which had Ravenna as its capital. Theodoric entrusted the defense of Italy to Alamannic populations, which however did not succeed in preventing the Baiuvari or Bavarians, settled in Raetia (Bavaria), from penetrating into the Venosta, Isarco and Pusteria valleys.

Christianity, at least for the part east of the Adige, has its head at Aquileia; there is no sure evidence of it, however, before the middle of the 3rd century; earlier than the Constantinian peace, along with that of Aquileia, the episcopal sees of Verona, Padua, Parenzo in Istria must be considered (v. ITALIA, Storia, n. 10). During the 4th century, those of Altino, Trento, Concordia (whose recent discoveries of paleochristian burial areas and cemetery basilicas attest all its importance in the 4th and 5th centuries), Giulio Carnico and probably Mantua, Oderzo, Feltre, Belluno, Asolo, Treviso, Vicenza, Trieste were gradually constituted; and beyond the Alps Scarabanzia, Sabaria, Emona in Pannonia Savia. In the 5th century Aquileia is a metropolis for the bishoprics of "Venetia et Histria" and the territories of Raetia Secunda with Vindelicia, of Noricum and of Upper Pannonia: Brescia is not excluded from it. The list of sees is preserved in the subscriptions of the Synod of Grado (579), in which there took part, besides Elias, residing at Grado but "episcopus sanctae Aquileiensis Ecclesiae," who convoked and presided over it, besides the bishops mentioned above, those of Pola, Cissa (a diocese of Istria now vanished), Parenzo and Pedena in Istria; of Celcia (Cilli), Agunto (Innichen in Carinthia) and Tiburnia (Spittal) in Noricum; of Sabiona (Seben, later Bressanone, in Raetia Secunda).

In the 6th century new events and political and religious dissensions brought about radical changes in the internal relations of Venetia and Istria, owing to the condemnation of the Three Chapters (v.) willed by the emperor Justinian and sanctioned by the fifth ecumenical council and second of Constantinople (553). The metropolitan of Aquileia together with his suffragans did not accept the condemnation, placing himself in opposition not only to the emperor but also to the Pope, and in vain Pelagius II and Gregory I sought to convince him that the definition of the Council of Chalcedon had not been compromised, as they claimed. Even the strong measures attempted by the exarch of Ravenna at the end of the 6th century had to be abandoned in the face of the schismatics, who intended to profit from the upheavals created by the Lombard invasion.

The Lombards, through the Julian Alps, had penetrated into Italy (568) and had established their first duchy at Cividale. Considering themselves secure in the rear, they advanced through Regio X, took Bolzano and Merano from the Bavarians and constituted the duchy of Trento, in addition to those of Verona and Ceneda, anxious to set against the Byzantine institutions those more in harmony with their national customs. Arians by religion, though without particular fanaticism, they encountered distrust in the Catholic hierarchy, so that the Venetian bishops left their cities closest to the sea with at least part of the urban population to seek refuge in the lagoons opposite, always included within the boundaries of their dioceses, over which the Byzantine authorities retained jurisdiction: Concordia at Caorle, Oderzo at Cittanova, Altino at Torcello; as for Aquileia, the bishop Paul (557-69), says Paul the Deacon, "fearing the barbarism of the Lombards, fled to the island of Grado and carried with him all the treasure of his church" (Hist. Longob., II, 10). Istria, on the other hand, over which the Lombards could not maintain stable dominion, remained subject to the exarchate until the coming of the Franks. The unity of the Aquileian metropolis was broken when in 607 the Byzantine authority succeeded in imposing on Grado a bishop of Catholic sentiment (Candidian); then in fact the schismatics of the mainland, under the protection of the Lombard king Agilulf, succeeded in having at Aquileia a bishop of their party (John), and there were two metropolises: that of Aquileia for the Lombard territory and that of Grado, which later proclaimed itself New Aquileia with Istria and the lagoon sees as these were gradually constituted: Caorle, Cittanova, Equilio, Torcello, Malamocco (later Chioggia); both metropolitans assumed the title of patriarch. The schism did not die out on the mainland until, at Pavia toward the end of the 7th century, the bishop of Aquileia solemnly abjured it, and his suffragans with him. Of these latter very little is known, and it is doubted whether the episcopal succession in some sees remained interrupted; in any case Concordia had its bishop, as did Ceneda as successor to that of Opitergium.

The Frankish occupation did not substantially change the state of things. The Lombard dukes were succeeded by Frankish counts, and since the count of Friuli had direct importance in the defense of the borders, it had particular preeminence with the title of marquis, extending for a moment its government over the transalpine territories of the east recently annexed to the Frankish Kingdom. The disintegration of the Frankish Empire and the invasions of the Hungarians at the beginning of the 10th century subjected the Venetian populations to a harsh trial: the seat of the march was moved to Verona and the feudal regime was established in the country particularly under the Italian kings, among whom Berengar I was forced to be lavish with his dependents in concessions of a political character. But alongside that of the counts, the power of the bishops asserted itself thanks to the concession of immunities, possessions, and privileges on the part of the Saxon and Franconian sovereigns, whereby, for example, the patriarch of Aquileia received the county of Carniola, the march of Istria, and direct feudal authority over the bishopric of Concordia and over the bishoprics of Istria. Meanwhile the episcopal principality of Trent was being constituted with Bolzano, the Venosta Valley passed to Rhaetia Curiensis and the valleys of the Rienza and the Isarco to Bavaria. Since the power of the bishops had its center in the city, in the Veneto, as indeed in the surrounding Lombardy, this power favored the city populations, which, growing in number and in wealth, were able to resist the pressure of the lords of the countryside and to create for themselves a communal constitution, also limiting the powers of the bishop to the point of freely allying among themselves as happened in 1164 with the Veronese League. The most important communes were Verona above all, Treviso, which was at the head of the joyful march at the beginning of the 13th century, Padua, Mantua; while rather secondary importance was had by Vicenza, a coveted prey of powerful neighbors, Feltre, Belluno; a special historical physiognomy, more long-lasting and feudal, was maintained by Friuli, still lacking cities of importance. To contain the communal power at the decline of the imperial power, Ezzelino III da Romano, strong with a vicariate obtained from Frederick II, attempted to constitute a state with Verona, Vicenza and Padua, while his brother Alberico established himself at Treviso, but definitively broken in 1260 they left the field free to the Signorie; that of the della Scala in Verona, which had its center of action at Verona and its greatest representative in Cangrande (d. 22 July 1329; v. Dante, Parad., XVII, 70 ff.) and the da Carrara in Padua and the da Camino (Gherardo, in Dante, Purg., XVI, 124 ff., Rizzardo, in Parad., IX, 49-51) in Treviso, whose power was consolidated with the decline of the Scaligeri, the Bonacolsi and then the Gonzaga in Mantua; Vicenza is somewhat the object of everyone's covetousness. Soon, however, the dukes of Austria strove for the possession of Friuli, of Belluno and Feltre and even of Treviso, and Gian Galeazzo Visconti for that of Verona; Francesco di Carrara, having obtained the cession of Treviso, Feltre and Belluno from Austria in 1382, attempted to profit from the Friulian discords, which had grown during the Western Schism, in order to gain possession of them to the detriment of the patriarch of Aquileia. But Venice, which had tried in vain to obtain free passage on the Po with the war for Ferrara in 1308, where it never managed to gain a foothold, found that it was necessary to intervene in the V. to protect its interests: after the death of Gian Galeazzo, it swept away the last Scaligeri and mercilessly crushed the treacherous Carraresi (1406), created a strong party in Friuli centered in Udine with the powerful Savorgnan family, until with its condottieri, having overcome all resistance in 1420, it made itself mistress of the whole country, uniting the entire V. (except Mantua and Trento) under its dominion, and despite the turbulent period of the war of 1509-16 it preserved it until the French invasion, governing the individual cities by means of its own magistrates.

Religious upheavals of note did not occur in the V. after the schism of the Three Chapters. The movement of the Reformation in the 16th century attempted to create hotbeds of heresy in the humanist circles of the cities, particularly in Verona, Padua, Vicenza and Venice; traces of Anabaptism are attested in the region; stronger were the attempts in Gorizia and Trieste; in Istria the two brother bishops Vergerio: Battista in Pola and Pier Paolo (v.) in Capodistria sought to introduce a reform of a disciplinary character; but after the death of the first and the forced departure from Italy (1549) of the second, every trace of Protestantism soon ceased.

Once the Venetian dominion ended in 1797, by the Treaty of Campoformio the mainland territory east of the Adige was awarded to Austria. But after the victory of Austerlitz in Dec. 1805 this territory as far as the Isonzo was united to the Kingdom of Italy; after Wagram (6 July 1809) it was enlarged with the addition of the Trentino and with the Illyrian provinces of Gorizia, Trieste, Istria, the Dalmatian littoral and other non-Italian lands. With the fall of the Kingdom of Italy, on 7 Apr. 1815, the V. together with Lombardy became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, under the government of an Austrian archduke residing in Milan. It comprised the ancient Venetian mainland territories, with the boundaries modified to the east; there remained, however, under direct Austrian dominion the Trentino, the Dalmatian littoral and the so-called Littoral (Kustenland) which comprised Gorizia, Gradisca with the Isonzo valley, Trieste and Istria under the government of a lieutenant residing in Trieste. Ecclesiastical relations were settled in 1818 through negotiations between Pius VII and Francis I (v. VENEZIA). With 1866 the V. became part of the Kingdom of Italy, but the Littoral remained subject to Austria and the ecclesiastical arrangements were not changed; however, the subversive laws enacted in the Kingdom were immediately applied.

The war of 1915-18 reunited the Trentino with the Alto Adige and the Littoral to Italy, modifying the boundaries of the dioceses of Gorizia and Trieste; but with the peace imposed on Italy in 1945 the boundaries were brought to the Isonzo and that Free Territory of Trieste was created which cannot have an autonomous life, while almost all of Istria was assigned to Yugoslavia. Ecclesiastical relations in this part have not yet received a stable settlement.

Paolo Lino Zovatto

III. CONCILIAR REGION.

It coincides with the ecclesiastical province and therefore is not bound by the obligation to celebrate the plenary Regional Council, following the provisions of can. 283 ff. of the CIC on the provincial Council. The following sees are part of the Venetian conciliar region: 1) immediately subject: a) metropolitan without suffragans: UDINE; b) archiepiscopal: TRENTO; c) episcopal: BRESSANONE; 2) metropolitans: VENEZIA (patriarchate) with the suffragans of ADRIA, BELLUNO and FELTRE, CHIOGGIA, CONCORDIA, PADOVA, TREVISO, VERONA, VICENZA, VITTORIO VENETO; GORIZIA E GRADISCA with the suffragans of TRIESTE E CAPODISTRIA (Free Territory of Trieste). By the motu proprio Qua cura of 8 Dec. 1938 (AAS, 30 [1938], pp. 410-13) the regional Tribunal for matrimonial cases was established with its seat in Venice; it is a tribunal of first instance for all the dioceses of the region and a tribunal of appeal for the dioceses of the Flaminia or Romagna region. For the Venetian region, on the other hand, the tribunal of appeal is the Milanese regional Tribunal. For the functioning of these tribunals the norms issued by the S. Congregation of the Sacraments on 10 July 1940 (ibid., 32 [1940], p. 304) apply.

Cosimo Petino

IV. ART IN THE VENETO.

I. TRIDENTINE VENICE

Because of its geographical position, Tridentine Venice was subject to various and at times opposing artistic currents. There are zones of clearly Venetian influence to the north-east of Lake Garda (Riva, Rovereto, Ala), while to the west of the lake Lombard influences prevail. Trent (v.) and its district have a clear Italian Renaissance imprint; in the Alto Adige, at Bolzano and Merano, the Gothic and German element prevails instead.

The current that spread there most uniformly is undoubtedly the Romanesque one, of Italian character: the greatest example is the cathedral of Trent (12th-13th centuries), begun by Adam of Arogno and continued by workshops of the Comacini and Campionesi; the interior has three naves with cross vaults; the portal has a porch. In the left arm of the transept, there are interesting frescoes of the Emilian current of the 14th century with the Legend of St. Julian, by Monte da Bologna.

In the small church of S. Benedetto at Malles there are precious frescoes of the 9th century, already full of the plastic sense of Romanesque art. At Tubre (upper Val Venosta) is the church of S. Giovanni, founded by the Knights of St. John, and at S. Candido the collegiate church of Sts. Candido and Corbiniano (13th century), with a solemn interior and vigorous examples of wood and stone sculpture. There are then many examples of Romanesque-Gothic architecture, such as S. Apollinare at Trent, S. Pietro at Cembra (Gothic interior), S. Maria Assunta at Malè in Val di Sole, the cathedral of Bolzano (first half of the 14th century). The Gothic lasted a long time in this region, with Italian forms that exceptionally reach as far as the Alto Adige, where however models from beyond the Alps dominated. To the Italian-Gothic current belongs the oldest part of the Castello del Buon Consiglio at Trent (13th-14th centuries), with the round Torre Grande, Romanesque. At Fiera di Primiero, the church of S. Maria Assunta, with an imposing three-naved interior in Gothic style, and S. Francesco at Bolzano with a fine cloister.

The 15th century in Trentino is almost entirely still Gothic: typical of this region are the castles, characteristic buildings that often retain the medieval character of their original structure, with Gothic and Renaissance elements superimposed; they often preserve frescoes of the international secular and chivalric current, of great quality and rare interest, such as Castel S. Pietro near Calliano, the Castle of Rovereto (enlarged by the Venetians in the 15th century), the Castle of Avio (with the first cycle of secular frescoes in Trentino) at Merano, the Castle of S. Zeno and Castel Tirolo (12th-13th centuries, ceded in 1363 to the Habsburgs) with fine Romanesque reliefs, Castel Churburg, in Val Venosta (13th and 16th centuries) and also that of Pergine in Valsugana (end of the 15th century) and that of Appiano (12th and 16th centuries, now in ruins). In Castel Roncolo, north of Bolzano, frescoes of the 15th century with the cycle of Tristan.

In painting, besides the aforementioned examples of the international current, to which must be added the cycle of the months in the circuit of the walls near the Buonconsiglio (Torre dell'Aquila), the work of an artist from beyond the Alps, a Romagnol Giottesque current reaches as far as Bolzano, where in the chapel of S. Giovanni of the church of the Dominicans it leaves a distinguished complex of frescoes (1340). Of great importance is the Germanic influence, profound especially in popular art, which is seen in the frescoes of the Romanesque cloister of the cathedral of Bressanone (14th and 15th centuries), where Jacopo Sunter, the last Gothic painter of the Alto Adige, also worked.

Also to be mentioned are the singular frescoes of the Romanesque church of S. Giacomo at Termeno (13th century) and the most elegant ones with the Stories of St. Daniel (15th century) in the church of the same name at Ora. In S. Procolo at Naturno, frescoes of the 8th and 9th centuries derived from Irish miniatures.

The Renaissance current penetrates slowly toward the end of the 15th century and its development, excluding the zone of Trent and a few other rare exceptions, was always opposed by the Gothic element. The Renaissance flowering of Trent is due initially to the bishop of Trent from 1514 to 1539; in 1520 the beautiful church of S. Maria Maggiore by A. Medaglia, from Como, arises; within a few decades the city adorns itself with palaces of plainly Venetian character, among them that of the Municipio (16th century), the Geremia, Salvadori and Rella houses (this one with frescoes attributed to Fogolino) and Palazzo Tabarelli, of the Lombard school. At Bressanone, where Nordic elements often merge with Renaissance ones, the Palace of the prince-bishops has a fine courtyard with three orders of loggias. But the most important Renaissance architecture is without doubt the complex of the Buonconsiglio. The first Romanesque construction was modified with Venetian variants through the work of bishop Hinderbach in 1475; then between 1528 and 1536 Bernardo Clesio had the Palazzo Magno added to the south, worthy to stand comparison with the most beautiful Italian royal residences of the period.

The name of the architect is not known. The loggia was frescoed by Romanino; Lotto too, the two Dossos, Fogolino, and Zucchi were called upon to decorate the Castello. This is a moment of great artistic fervor; the city is open to everything best produced in the neighboring regions. The Palazzo Lodron at Ponte Caffaro is an example of Brescian architecture. At Rovereto, under the Most Serene Republic, the Palazzo del Municipio was rebuilt in 1476 (frieze by Fogolino). Michele Pacher of Brunico (2nd half of the 15th century), sculptor and painter, is the most remarkable and refined artist of the Alto Adige (old parish church of Gries).

The Baschenis, popular Bergamasque painters, also worked in certain localities of the Trentino (frescoes of the church of S. Antonio at Pelugo in Val Rendena and of the church of S. Vigilio near Pinzolo, with the famous Danza macabra painted on the facade by Simone Baschenis: v. t.v. XLVII). Many churches are frescoed by anonymous popular Trentine painters and adorned with statues, altars, and wooden choir lofts of local art (with a tendency between the Gothic and the Baroque). The Baroque age is not of great importance; one recalls the church of the Seminary of Trent, designed by p. Pozzo, a native of that very city, the chapel of the Crocefisso in the cathedral of Trent, and, again at Trent, the churches of the Annunziata and of S. Martino (decorated by Knoller and Cignaroli). In the eighteenth century painting takes on great importance through its relations with the neighboring Viennese Rococo art. The Guardi family is originally from the Val di Non (at Vigo, in the parish church, a painter of Antonio and Francesco Guardi). This is the moment in which flourished a group of remarkable painters who often found fame in other cities of Italy: Alberti, Unterpergher, and Lampi.

In the 19th century, every artistic activity stagnates. Still noteworthy is the painting of Segantini and, toward the end of the century, that of Umberto Moggioli.

II. VENEZIA EUGANEA

With the establishment of Roman civilization in the region, the monuments that bear remarkable witness to this civilization also begin to appear and multiply throughout the period that concludes, roughly, with the Lombard invasion. These are sepulchral monuments, splendid examples of which are found especially in Aquileia, statues and reliefs, a notable product of provincial art; amphitheaters still in good preservation as at Pola, Verona and, much less, at Padua; theaters as at Trieste and Verona; temples and arches as at Pola and Verona, while at Aquileia notable parts of the Forum have been discovered. Remains of buildings of lesser importance and of villas are encountered throughout the region. Numerous, moreover, are the mosaics, especially at Aquileia. The first Christian basilicas arise at Aquileia (v.) from the first decades of the 4th century to the 6th, but only their plans covered with mosaics survive, as at Giulio Carnico, while those of the Vergine and of St. Euphemia of Grado (v.), of Euphrasius at Parenzo (v.), of Sts. Felix and Fortunatus at Vicenza (v.), of the Assunta at Trieste (v.) are preserved in their lines.

Early Christian Venetian art may be called late Roman art with Byzantine influences absorbed through Ravenna. The artistic heritage of the classical world, through barbarian influence, prepared the new Romanesque art, which on the mainland later developed with freer breath: St. Sofia in Padua, and, masterpiece of Venetian Romanesque, St. Zeno of Verona, derived from the splendid Modenese cathedral of Lanfranco (1120-38). On the coast, more bound to the ancient tradition, there are the splendid examples of the cathedral of Torcello, with three naves of the exarchal type, and, on the same island, St. Fosca, probably rebuilt on a pre-existing "martyrion" (Bettini), with an interior in the form of a Greek cross and an exterior with arcades following a polygonal perimeter. The apse, entirely articulated with niches and brickwork, recalls that of Sts. Mary and Donato of Murano (rebuilt in 1140), for the same tendency toward color and the delicacy of the relationships between surfaces and atmosphere. The prototype of these lagoon churches was the cathedral of Caorle (1038), with three naves, with Romanesque-Byzantine capitals and small slit windows. The first dogal basilica of the Partecipazi (828) must have been similar; this is the moment when Byzantine craftsmen arrive in Venice, called precisely to work there. The second St. Mark's, due to Pietro Orseolo, was entirely decorated with marbles and Byzantine sculptures, which were later used in the third Basilica, built by Domenico Contarini, which absorbed and erased the preceding architectures (1063). According to some scholars, the structure of St. Mark's is therefore Romanesque and owes its oriental appearance to the decoration that was gradually enriched with the rich spoils that Venetian merchants brought back from the East; according to Fiocco, it is the work of Byzantine craftsmen inspired by the example of the Apostoleion renewed through the work of Basil, with domes projecting on a deliberately archaic scheme. St. Mark's influences the architecture of the Santo of Padua, where however the domes do not harmonize with the body of the Romanesque-Gothic basilica. In Venice, in the oldest part, especially in the Rialto area, Byzantine civil buildings still exist.

On pictorial activity in the V., the influence of the East was continuous and Venetian painting was formed precisely from this relationship between the ancient oriental civilization and the western one. In Venice and on the coasts the Byzantine element predominated for a long time, producing the splendid mosaics of St. Mark's at the time of Doge Domenico Selvo (11th century), while in the Venetian hinterland, Romanesque-Northern forms expand, at Verona with notable Germanic contributions. In the middle of the 13th century some mosaicists of St. Mark's manifested relationships with Romanesque art and assumed a dramatic intensity that only sculpture had reached: it almost seemed that Venice was detaching itself from the East (mosaics of the atrium).

Early Christian sculpture had in the V. late Roman forms inherited from Ravenna: St. Mark's was adorned with bas-reliefs and capitals and early Christian statues (chair of St. Mark, the Nativity, etc.). In the hinterland, Lombard-Carolingian forms are present in sculptures of a decorative character. In the 13th century Byzantine art again has great weight on maritime V.: many bas-reliefs and works of a more specifically decorative character (chancel screens) adorned the churches and many Byzantine craftsmen worked there, forming their own school, which nevertheless took account of the new Romanesque art. On the mainland, at Verona, the Lombard current asserts itself with Niccolò, who decorates the facade of St. Zeno, reworking Hellenistic and Byzantine motifs; the bronze panels of the portals of the same church are of the Romanesque-German school. The new Gothic current was not immediately welcomed in the Venetian environment, which absorbed it slowly; it then took great development there in the first three decades of the 15th century, increasingly accentuating the decorative elements. On the mainland there are St. Anastasia and the cathedral of Verona, St. Fermo and the Eremitani at Padua; in Venice the Gothic churches of the Mendicant Orders, whose construction was prolonged into the 15th century: Sts. John and Paul and the Frari, almost contemporary, and then St. Stephen, simpler, the Madonna dell'Orto, the Carmine and St. Zaccaria (interior), all with three naves, with cross vaults. Characteristic elements are the columns, the tie-rods that reduce the function of the buttresses, the arches that develop in breadth. Later, with a single nave, St. Maria della Carità and St. Gregory. From this period is the definitive construction of the Doge's Palace which, a castle first, began to assume its present form around 1340, after various rebuildings, and received the imprint of that flamboyant Gothic, characterized by the predominance of voids over solids, which would dominate in Venice for a long time. Another splendid example of this light architecture, in harmony with the light and entirely resolved in surface, is the Ca' d'Oro; among civil architectures we should still remember Ca' Foscari, Ca' Pisani, the Palazzi Priuli, Soranzo, Van Axel, Contarini-Fasan. In the 14th century Giotto worked at Padua (Scrovegni Chapel), whose art exercised a profound influence in the region. To understand, however, the subsequent developments of painting in the V., one must emphasize the importance of the school of Riminese and Romagnol miniaturists. Here is Tommaso da Modena (with Gothic and Sienese influences) who worked especially at Treviso; Altichiero at the Santo of Padua, and then Stefano da Verona. At Verona Pisanello worked, the highest genius of international Gothic in Italy (frescoes at St. Fermo and St. Anastasia). In Venice, Paolo Veneziano is still imbued with Byzantine manners and influences the Paduan Guariento; but Lorenzo Veneziano is already drawn into the Gothic world, and so is Jacobello del Fiore, who undergoes the fascination of Pisanello. With the great contributions that the painting of Gentile da Fabriano gives to Jacopo Bellini and Alvise Vivarini, we are by now on the threshold of the Renaissance.

In the field of sculpture some Byzantinism still persists (sarcophagus of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus), but for the rest the Gothic-Venetian current is entirely under the influence of the Antelami and perhaps, indirectly, also of French art: notable, at Padua, the portal of St. Giustina; in Venice, the Dream of St. Mark (Marcian Basilica) and the decoration of the main portal of the same Basilica, in which Byzantine influences are still noticeable in the pictorial sensibility. At Padua Giovanni Pisano is present (Madonna and angels at the Scrovegni), Nino Pisano works in Venice on the Corner monument at Sts. John and Paul. Both in Venice and in Padua, the two Tuscans left a profound trace in a school which, as always, elaborated their contribution and transformed it into a Venetian language. Of this school were part many masters who left works throughout the region; the best known are the brothers Jacobello and Pier Paolo dalle Masegne who were also active at Mantua, at Bologna and in Lombardy and are the authors of the statues of the iconostasis of St. Mark's. Balduccio da Pisa brought to Verona the teaching of the Pisanos and influenced those Campionese masters to whom the Scaliger tombs are owed.

At the beginning of the 15th century, some great Tuscan artists were summoned to the Veneto; after the fire that devastated St. Mark's in 1479, Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Castagno were summoned by the Republic to infuse new life into the now-decadent school of mosaic. And the two masters, though they did not renew the splendor of the ancient decoration, brought it to a high level. Thus in Padua Filippo Lippi (who worked at the Santo) brought the new gospel of the Renaissance, influencing some local masters. From Squarcione's school came Mantegna (Ovetari Chapel, at the Eremitani), and from 1443 Donatello worked in Padua for ten years; this city was now the most vital and fertile artistic center for the dissemination of Renaissance problems and art in the north. From Andrea Mantegna (v.) one may say that all the Renaissance schools of the Veneto and of Lombardy derived and took new vigor. The Venetians would increasingly resolve the problems of form and space in color, their natural element, essential to mosaic painting. Thus one may say that in every city of the Veneto a school flourished: in Padua, in Verona, where the Mantegnesque influence was also very much alive, with F. B. Bonsignori, D. and F. Morone, G. dei Libri, Liberale and F. and G. Caroto. The Venetian school was about to bear its highest fruits with the Bellini (v.). Besides Donatello, other Tuscan sculptors worked in Padua, such as Dello Delli, Michele da Firenze, Pietro Lamberti and Agostino di Duccio, who by their example freed Venetian sculpture from Gothic influences. From them were formed Niccolò Pizzolo, author of the altarpiece of the Eremitani (terracotta), Bartolomeo Bellano (who left works at the Santo, at St. Justina's, at the Eremitani, at St. Francis's, etc.) and also Andrea Briosco, called il Riccio, a famous bronzeworker distinguished by a spirited realism. In Venice, from the workshop of Bartolomeo Bon, author of the Porta della Carta, came sculptors ("taiapiera") Tuscan, Venetian, and Lombard, such as Matteo Raverti, who worked in the Doge's Palace, and Andrea da Milano. The workshop of Pietro Lombardi also enjoyed great fame; he worked with his sons Antonio and Tullio and was influenced by Agostino di Duccio; the Lombardi left works also in Padua (Santo) and in Treviso (Cathedral). In the second half of the 15th century the genius of Antonio Rizzo appeared in Venice, who created his masterpiece in the statues of Adam and Eve in the Doge's Palace, in which all Gothicisms end and a new plastic sense is born, characterized by flowing and luminous masses.

Pietro Lombardo was also an architect, with a marked tendency toward decoration rather than toward creating definite structures (church of the Miracoli, Palazzo Dario), while Mauro Codussi was sustained by a true architectural genius and organized spaces and gave the ribs their functional mission (facade of St. Zaccaria, St. Maria Formosa, St. Giovanni Grisostomo, St. Michele in Isola). In 1527, after the sack of Rome, Sansovino arrived in Venice, where he had very great success; among his principal works should be remembered the Zecca, the Libreria di S. Marco, the church of St. Francesco della Vigna, the Palazzo Cornaro, the loggetta of the campanile. He knew how to adapt his classical and Roman experiences to the particular atmosphere of Venice, giving his buildings rhythms marked by the predominance of voids over solids, with evident pictorial researches. Toward the middle of the 16th century flourished the greatest Venetian architect, Andrea Palladio (v.). In the Veneto there also worked Falconetto, who derived from Bramante and Peruzzi, Serlio, particularly known as a theorist, fra' Giocondo (loggia in Piazza dei Signori in Verona) and, so-

Above all, the Veronese Sanmicheli, a great military architect who reveals this quality of his also in the monumental lines of his palaces (Grimani).

Meanwhile the school of Giovanni Bellini bears its splendid fruits; by now in Venice color is free of every subjection to drawing, it is like a vital breath that animates, in the light of its relationships, landscapes and human figures. In this direction, decisive too was the contribution of Antonello da Messina, active in Venice and Milan in 1475-1476 (Pietà del Correr). By this master, who fused in a high poetic synthesis the achievements of Piero della Francesca with Flemish contributions, Alvise Vivarini was particularly influenced, who then drew close to Giambellino, along with Basaiti, B. Montagna (Vicenza) and Cima da Conegliano. Toward the end of the 15th century there were in Bellini's workshop: V. Catena, il Bissolo, Rocco Marconi, G. M. Pennacchi (Treviso), B. Boccaccini (Cremona), F. Mazzola (Parma), N. Rondinello (Ravenna). Giorgione da Castelfranco ([v.] altarpiece at Castelfranco) comes from Giambellino and is the marvelous flower of his school; as Titian (v.) comes in turn from Giorgione, and the same can be said of Palma il Vecchio (v.). Flourishing in this period are Pordenone, who prefers monumental forms, Lorenzo Lotto who, for his refined restlessness and the northern accents of his cold colors, has a particular place in the history of Venetian painting; A. Previtali, il Cariani, who derives from Palma il Vecchio and from Lotto, Bernardino Licinio, Savoldo, Romanino, Moretto da Brescia and Bonifacio de' Pitati and il Torbido of Verona, A. Schiavone, Paris Bordone.

In the early 16th century there also works in Venice Sebastiano del Piombo, who will later undergo the influence of Michelangelo; while they opened new paths: Paolo Veronese, Tintoretto, J. Bassano.

The sculpture of the 16th century, which in the V. develops in the wake of the school of the Lombardi, receives new impulse from Jacopo Sansovino, a Tuscan, to whom Vasari rightly acknowledges «facility, sweetness, grace and a certain something of loveliness»; this master, besides the statues of the Loggetta, left the Venier monument and the Giganti of the staircase of the same name (a work of his school). Among his followers: Danese Cattaneo, Tiziano Minio, Tiziano Aspetti, a highly refined bronzist, G. Campagna of Verona and A. Vittoria of Trent, who dominated in Venice with a marked tendency toward pictorial effects of light and shadow.

At the end of the 16th century V. Scamozzi, a most learned theorist, spreads through his works an academicism that blocks the natural development of Renaissance architectures in the V. The first to return to tradition was

Baldassare Longhena, a pupil of Scamozzi, whose Baroque language carries to their extreme consequences those elements of picturesqueness already present in Palladio, in Sansovino and in Sanmicheli (Palazzo Belloni-Battaglia, church of the Salute, Ca' Pesaro, Ca' Rezzonico, cathedral of Chioggia, interior of the Scalzi, Scuola di S. Giorgio dei Greci and dei Carmini, the grand staircase of S. Giorgio Maggiore, Villa Rezzonico at Bassano and Widmann at Bagnoli, etc.). He had no true followers.

In the seventeenth century, painting in Venice suffered a setback: the epigones of the great Venetians either limited themselves to imitating the masters or allowed themselves to be drawn to the most commonplace Mannerism, or continued to exploit Titian's color. Yet even at this moment "Europe speaks in painting one and the same tongue, the Venetian." And in Venice and the Veneto the authentic vein regained value above all through the work of foreign artists: D. Fetti, who had great influence also on G. Liss, a German who worked in Venice in those same years (until 1630), bringing painting to a great freedom combined with refined preciousness of style. In 1630 B. Strozzi (Genoa) arrived in Venice, who in Fetti's legacy clarifies the qualities of his whimsical temperament. The liveliest vein of the Venetian tradition continues with F. Maffei (Vicenza) and S. Mazzoni, Mola, Ruschi, Zanchi and Langetti.

In this period sculpture develops as decoration: at the Salute many craftsmen work under the guidance of the Fleming Giusto Le Court. Sculptors from every city of Italy go to work in Venice: Parodi (Genoa), Maaza (Bologna), the Frenchman Perreau and the Germans Weyering (S. Moisé) and Barthel (Pesaro monument at the Frari). All end up assuming the local pictorial manners.

In the eighteenth century in Venice architecture returns to Palladian models; majestic exteriors in five orders correspond to the light and capricious Rococo interiors. G. Massari (first half of the 18th century) is the author of Palazzo Grassi, of the churches of the Fava and of the Gesuati. Also to be remembered are T. Temanza (church of the Maddalena) and A. Tirali (church of S. Vitale and the pronaos of the Tolentini).

In the 18th century painting once again sets out to reconquer primacy through Amigoni, G. A. Pellegrini and S. Ricci. But it is Piazzetta (v.) "who, suddenly throwing open the doors of the eighteenth century, brings to Venetian painting the will and the essential sense of a style that means plastic construction, linear severity, coloristic concision, which is a simplification of the palette to a few tones, almost as if to reduce it to an energetic force of shadow and light" (Pallucchini). Within his orbit begins the activity of G. B. Tiepolo (v.), who then, through Ricci, returns to the manners of Paolo Veronese. In the orbit of G. B. Tiepolo and of S. Ricci there should be remembered, for lesser but always valid contributions, G. B. Pittoni, F. Fontebasso, G. B. Cignaroli, and in the field of decorative painting G. Diziani, J. Marieschi, Zugno, Guarana, the Paduan Crosato and finally Novelli. Around Piazzetta are found G. Angeli, Cappella, the two Maggiotto, the Dalmatian Filippo Bencovich, whose fame spread throughout Europe especially through engravings. A profound and acute interpreter of the Venetian eighteenth century is Pietro Longhi, who in his small canvases fixes episodes of daily life of a society moving toward its twilight. His son Alessandro was famous as a portraitist; in this genre Rosalba Carriera had very great fame for her pastels. In the 18th century the school of Venetian view painters, opened by the Friulian L. Carlevaris, was particularly important in Venice and the Veneto; in his workshop Canaletto began, and Swedish painter Richter influenced his painting. From him derives his nephew Bernardo Bellotto. While in Canaletto "the pictorial realization is mediated by the perspectival framing," on completely different premises is formed the painting of F. Guardi, a solitary artist. In him the relationship between figure and space is essentially pictorial: "he realizes an atmospheric, dust-like light, within which form is as it were dispersed, immersed in the very nature of light" (Pallucchini).

Among the sculptors of the 18th century there are remembered here Marchiori, Bonazza and Morlaiter, who continues the sensitive pictorial tradition of the Venetians. In the same environment A. Canova was formed, who would later become the greatest exponent of the Neoclassical current.

In the nineteenth century, the coloristic tradition will continue within the limits of provincial anecdote; nevertheless they have a notable personality of their own, entering into the history of Italian painting of the time: G. Favretto, Hayez, of Lombard training, M. Grigoletti, G. Ciardi, to whom relations with the Macchiaioli give a greater vivacity, L. Nono, A. Milesi, Zandomeneghi, who emigrated to Paris and was influenced by the Impressionists. Among the sculptors there must above all be remembered Selva, Dal Zotto and especially Borro.

Among the contemporaries the major painter is G. Rossi and the most important sculptor A. Martini of Treviso, who through manifold experiences decisively influenced modern Italian sculpture.

III. VENEZIA GIULIA

Between the 7th and 8th centuries, the region fell under Lombard rule. At Cividale, which was the Lombard capital of Friuli, there remains, as an outstanding monument of this period, the oratory of S. Maria in Valle, probably built under the patriarchate of St. Paulinus, with Roman and Byzantine elements; it has marvelous stuccoes and frescoes contemporary with the stuccoes. In the local Archaeological Museum and in the cathedral are collected fragments with Roman, barbarian and prehistoric monuments and important works of art from later periods. In the plutei of Cittanova d'Istria one notices, besides classical decorative motifs, depictions of animals of vigorous imagination, a prelude to Romanesque art, which did not bring so many modifications to the functional elements as to the decorative ones. Mention is made of S. Anastasia of Zara with three naves (13th century) with capitals of various styles. S. Lorenzo del Pasenatico, the basilica of Muggia Vecchia.

the little church of S. Silvestro in Trieste and finally S. Giusto, which arose in the 14th century from the union of two pre-existing churches: the Assunta, with three naves, and the first S. Giusto, smaller and likewise with three naves. The new basilica lacks unity, but the five poor and austere naves create a solemn atmosphere. There are classical and Byzantine capitals and the mosaics are contemporary with those of S. Marco; the frescoes of the apse with the Stories of St. Justus, martyr, are by Altichieri da Zevio. In Friuli worthy of mention are S. Maria di Castello in Udine (with a Lombardesque facade), S. Francesco in Cividale (13th century), that of Udine, the cathedral of Gemona (by G. Griglio), a transitional work with an interior of Gothic arches.

The Gothic age developed under the rule of Venice, to which, from the mid-13th century, Istria too was becoming subject. In this period everything reflects the presence of the Republic of Venice: everywhere its seal, the Lion of St. Mark, is still found today. Venetian painters, sculptors and architects worked there, so that one can speak of Venetian art. Among the architectural works mention is made of the cathedral of Pola, of paleochristian origin, but with Gothic-provincial transformations (15th century); the church of S. Francesco built by the Friars Minor, very active in Istria; the cathedral of Muggia with a facade with a wavy arch similar to that of the church of the Carità in Venice; the small church of S. Giacomo in Capodistria, the cathedral of Udine (with frescoes by Vitale da Bologna), Romanesque-Gothic, later reworked, and that of Venzone.

Among civil and private architecture, the small palaces of Pola, Pirano (the city that most echoes Venice), Parenzo, Capodistria; the Venetian houses with two-light and three-light windows of Pirano, Udine, Pordenone and other centers, the castles that flourished more or less everywhere and among which mention is made of that of Colloredo di Montalbano, with three rings of walls. Everywhere the Republic placed fortifications, walls and very beautiful towers. The Castle of Gorizia, on the other hand, like the cathedral of Pisino, has German influences due to the rule of the counts of Gorizia of German origin; Trieste, by contrast, suffered no influence from the north. In the main apse of its Cathedral there were frescoes - now lost - of the Friulian school. The school of the De Sanctis, Venetian sculptors trained on Nino Pisano, left works in Udine and Capodistria. The penetration of Venetian art continues in the 16th century, with a more unified character, throughout the region, including Friuli. In Capodistria the Dalle Masegne and Tullio Lombardo worked in the Cathedral.

In the mid-16th century Jacopo Sansovino restored S. Maria del Canneto in Pola; in Udine Palladio worked; in Brioni excellent workshops of stonecutters flourished. Istrian stone confers new and particular austerity on Venetian models. There were not many original constructions, but numerous transformations and reworkings: the cathedral of Osséro is a Renaissance architecture with an arched facade and a Lombardesque portal, as is also the cathedral of Cherso; the cathedral of Cividale, enlarged and rebuilt on a design by P. Lombardo; the beautiful Palazzo del comune of Venzone (14th and 15th century) and the Palazzo comunale of Gemona, the Castle of Udine (architecture by G. Gontana), now the Civic Museum, and that of Sanvincenti. Among the painters, G. Martini da Udine (works in Udine, Portogruaro, etc.), of Tolmezzo origin, was influenced by Alvise Vivarini and by Cima da Conegliano; Pellegrino da S. Daniele also influenced Cima's followers; Gianfrancesco da Tolmezzo decorated the church of S. Martino in Socchieve; a pupil of G. Martini was Giovanni da Udine who worked in Friuli as an architect. For the cities of Istria and Dalmatia worked Vittore Carpaccio and his son Benedetto, Titian, Paris Bordone and Palma il Vecchio, Paolo Veronese and Jacopo Bassano. In Friuli worked G. A. da Pordenone, emulator of Titian (choir of the parish church of Travesio, duomo of Spilimbergo, S. Maria dei Battuti in Valeriano), then Pomponio Amalteo and Sebastiano Florigerio. From Zara come Andrea Schiavone and Francesco Laurana, who however left no traces in the region. Military architecture flourished particularly, as a direct emanation of the Serenissima, especially through the work of Michele Sanmicheli (port of Terraferma at Zara), of Falconetto, of Palladio, of Scamozzi and of Serlio. With the Baroque period the artistic fervor diminished throughout the region; the decline coincided with the end of Venetian power. Architectures of great significance are lacking: instead the interiors of churches were modified (duomos of Udine, of Gorizia and of Capodistria) and in the numerous reconstructions of churches of the 18th century and the early 19th century the Venetian models of that age were reproduced. In S. Ignazio of Gorizia there are frescoes by Taucher, a pupil of Father Pozzo. The importation of works by Venetian painters continued, among them those of Palma il Giovane and of the last followers of Titian.

With the fall of Venice the Venetian tradition was interrupted and art entered the Italian and European sphere, without anything exceptionally noteworthy being produced there. From the Neoclassical period one recalls S. Antonio Nuovo and the Teatro Verdi in Trieste, where a local academic school with Viennese influences developed. In the Museo Revoltella in Trieste, among the many works of the 19th century, a notable portrait of a lady by G. Tominz is preserved. Of Friulian origin is M. Grigoletti, a notable painter who trained in Venice and was the master of G. Favretto.

Michelangelo Muraro

V. FOLKLORE.

In folkloric terms, as well as in language, the Venetian people is among the best defined and identified in Italy. Not that the folkloric elements are all or for the most part autochthonous, but it is certain that they have taken on local characteristics such as to be called typical and proper to that zone. This zone comprises as a single region the entire territory of the Tre Venezie, presenting a marked uniformity, albeit with the natural variations between mountain and plain, between countryside and city, in the fundamental traits of the character of those populations and of their traditional manifestations: from this continuity of folkloric culture there stands apart, as with the dialect, the Friuli.

The most common type of monostrophic lyric song in the popular tradition of the Tre Venezie is the so-called Venetian villoletta, which is stylistically characterized by an ennobled dialectal language, by the simplicity and linearity of its expressive modes, often veiled by a satirical sense, and which metrically represents the survival of the strambotto, formed as it is of two, four, six or even eight hendecasyllables rhymed, or assonanced alternately, with the closing couplet in rhymed couplet. Fashioned in this scheme are the serenades or morning-songs, called in the Val Lagarina mazzinae, widespread among the Veneto-Giulians and in the Trentino since a distant age, as declares an ecclesiastical proclamation of 1551 that prohibited the making of morning-songs at night in Trento during Lent. Not to be confused with the Venetian one is the Friulian villoletta, which is a stanza proper and only to the Friuli (with some trace of infiltration in the Venezia Euganea and in Lombardy), composed of a simple quatrain of octonaries, in whose brief melodic circle is enclosed a desire, a praise, a compliment. Nor is the V. ignorant of sacred and profane narrative songs. Of the former, numerous are the versions of the Passion Italia Centrale I e III. Of the latter, a particularly conservative character reveals the Istrian area, where besides the songs of the common Venetian repertoire (Donna lombarda, Pesca dell'anello, Bevando sonuifera, Palso pellegrino, etc.), more rare songs are encountered, such as La fuga, La morte occulta, Il marito ucciso, Il testamento dell'avvelenato.

The novella tradition is very rich. The romantic legends alive in the Veneto-Giulian countries comprise all the most important cycles, with the exception of the Breton one of the Round Table; in the cycle of the Risorgimento there emerges, especially at Buie and at Visinada, the figure of Garibaldi. The historical legends draw their subject from the battles between the ancient Istrians and Romans, from the war of Chioggia between Venice and Genoa and from the struggles of the Istrians against the invading Slavs. Jesus and the Madonna, Angels and Saints (among whom especially, in the Giulian lands, St. Nicholas, St. Martin, St. George) are the favorite characters of the sacred legends. Finally, very numerous are the legends about natural and supernatural phenomena, through which the people has created for itself a mythology of its own of fantastic beings, usually invoked to frighten restless and disobedient children; such are, in the Trentino: besides the Devil and the Ogre, the Salvanèl, the Calcatrapole or Calcaròt, the Basadòne, the Barzola; in Venezia Giulia: the Balarin, the Massariol, the Sión; as well as everywhere various types and names of witches.

Of the various beliefs and customs that mark the calendar cycle, the most characteristic are recalled. In the days preceding the Epiphany, in many places of the V. they use to sing the Stela: at sunset, a company of young people makes the round of begging through the houses of the village, carrying hung from a long pole a paper star, and singing lauds to Jesus and the Madonna, or the story of the Magi. Among the carnival rites are recalled in the Trentino folklore the masquerade of the plowmen at Mésero and at Predazzo, the masquerade of the months at Cembra and the hunt for the Salvanèl at Panchià and at Tésero: the characters of the latter are, besides the Salvanèl, who is a man covered with goat or sheep skin and with branches of fir or green pine, the Cavra barba (goat with the beard), a Harlequin and various hunters. Very well known throughout the V. are the masks of Harlequin, dressed in multicolored rags, Brighella (the ancient Zanni) and Pantalone, the king of Carnival. On the Thursday of mid-Lent it was once a common custom to saw or burn the vècia, a puppet representing Lent. At Calendimarzo, the beginning of a seasonal cycle, there takes place in many valleys of the V. the public announcement of engagements, with customs that substantially link back to that de lis cidulis, surviving in Carnia. In Val di Fiemme the feast was organized by youth associations: the elected company would go beneath the windows of the girls to sing the maridazzo, by which the most beautiful girl was assigned to the bangeral, head of the association, and then another to the sotobangeral, and so on to the other members of the company. At Chizzola the ceremony took place around a bonfire, among the ruins of an old castle, and while the sung dialogue unfolded, amid shouts and gunshots the young men waved the burning brands, hurling them, as a sign of joy and good omen, down from the cliff. Easter marks the beginning of spring in many localities. Indicative elements of its propitiatory meaning are, in Verona, the brassadele, a kind of golden ring-shaped cake, symbolizing the Sun, which in country shops are seen threaded onto little trees called bastoni; and the very widespread game of eggs (a scoceta, a rompiovo, a righèla), sometimes dyed in many colors as a propitiatory sign. Traces of the spring cult of St. George (23 April) are presented by Veneto-Julian folklore: in many villages of Istria the first propitiatory procession for the harvest is held, and at Cherso the water is blessed which is then used for the blessing of the fields and herds. On the night of St. John a vigil was once held in the Belluno area (vea de s. Zuane); in Cadore great bonfires are lit, whose blessed ashes are collected and kept as an amulet against landslides. Many medical and protective virtues are attributed to herbs: erba dela incontradora o de s. Zuane is the name given in the Belluno area to a special herb that is burned against storms. Various and widely diffused (in Venice, for example) are the ways of drawing, on that day, prognostics about the future and especially about marriage.

Certain feasts of local tradition have notable spectacular value, such as that of the Redentore in Venice (third Sunday of July), vowed by the Venetian Senate for the city's deliverance from the terrible plague of 1575, and characterized by the historic costumed regatta on the Grand Canal; the Rua (wheel) at Vicenza, consisting of a great wooden machine in the shape of a tower, with the statue of Justice at the top and the ruota in the middle, which was carried in procession on the shoulders of 80 bearers on the day of Corpus Christi; and the bacchanal of the guoco at Verona, on Shrove Friday. Of the picturesque Venetian ceremony of the "marriage of the sea" on the occasion of the feast of the Ascension, or Sensa, the memory persists in the saying andár a la sensa, in the sense of losing one's head: "... the Doge ascended on that day solemnly onto the Bucintoro, all adorned with sendal; and, followed by a superb accompaniment of gondolas, boats and barks of every most elegant form, adorned with satins and flowers, he proceeded as far as the Lido, amid an incessant firing of cannons from all the vessels and ships that were round about, and the festive ringing of bells of all the churches of Venice. And, having reached the Lido, he threw the golden ring into the sea, pronouncing the famous words: 'We wed thee, O sea, in sign of true and perpetual dominion'" (Olivieri).

The cycle of human life in the Veneto is likewise rich in ethnographically interesting elements. Of the rites of tree worship there is noted at Pinzolo, in the Belluno area, the exchange among lovers of a green twig, symbol of an oath; the custom observed in Friulian villages of placing the log on the threshold of the beloved's house, as a marriage proposal; and the ceremony, practiced in several places, especially in the past, of marriages with trees. A characteristic custom of the Polesine is that of far la levata of the bride: in certain villages of the Sette Comuni a dialogue unfolded, according to a traditional pattern, between the groom's relatives and the bride's family, and the whole scene recalls the custom of the girl who hides before entering into marriage, still widespread in notable areas of Europe. During the procession, in many places of the Veneto the sharra was performed, with flowers and ribbons, and in order to obtain passage the newlyweds were obliged to give an offering. At Belluno, to cross the bridge over the Piave the newlyweds had to pay a toll to the company of the zattieri: tradition indicates and marks a rite of material passage. A notable trace of the rite of the nights of chastity is found in various places of the Veneto, where on the first night the bride sleeps alone, while the groom keeps vigil with friends, and the feast sometimes drags on for three days. Of funeral customs, singular is the name of anzoleto given to the cheerful ringing of bells with which the death of a little boy or girl is announced, a name that links back to the motif expressed in a Chioggian lullaby: "Fussistu nato per anare in cielo / I anzoli godaria el to viso belo!"

Traditional and singular elements of costume are, at Chioggia, for the man the large red or light-blue cap with or without a tassel, a rough jacket, heavy clogs (muloti) and a hat with a hood; for the woman, the tonda, a broad percale kerchief, doubled in winter, which on feast days is replaced by the pieta, of very fine cloth and adorned with lace; in Venice the scialeto (once called zendale or zendaleto), once colored, now black and fringed. The female costume of the Veneto-Julian and Istrian areas is rich in lace (famous are the antique laces of Veglia and the Quarnaro) and in various ornaments: earrings, pins, pendants, clusters of pearls, as in the dress of Dignano, and other types of Istrian goldsmithing from Pirano, Pisino and Rovigno.

In close relation to the characteristics of the human environment, the distribution of the principal forms of rural houses appears in the Veneto, which especially in the border zones reflects the encounter of the various cultural influences, German, Italian and Slavic: a marked bipartition is detectable, for example, in Venezia Giulia, where a clear demarcation line distinguishes the "Central European" group, representative of the eastern, predominantly mountainous part, characterized by a roof with very steep slopes and covering of straw or wood, from the "South European" group, akin to the Italian type, with a roof of two gently sloping pitches and covering of tiles or stone. Of particular interest, as a survival of the past, are the so-called residual types, whose rare but extant examples over notable areas demonstrate that their intensity of diffusion must once have been far greater: the single-cell houses of Seiane and of Villanova del Quieto, once presumably extending over all Istria and the Karst; the house of Divaccia, which shows Friulian, Istrian and Central European traits; the "casite" in southern Istria, which derive from ancient single-cell buildings with a circular plan used for the burial of the dead, and the "casoni" of the lagoon of Grado, a memory of the Paleo-Venetian dwelling, representative of the transition from the circular plan to the rectangular one. - See plates CXXII-CXXV.

Giovanni Bronzini