CASTITÀ

CHASTITY. - A moral virtue that regulates the appetite for sexual pleasure inherent in the generative act. It is a virtue because it involves the soul's mastery over the body, to be maintained by the energy of the will (Sum. theol., 2^{a}-2^{ac}, q. 151, a. 2); it concerns both the soul, as its subject, and the body, as its matter (ibid., a. 1, ad 1^{m}); it is annexed to the cardinal virtue of temperance, which aims precisely to regulate the pursuit and use of sensual pleasures (ibid., a. 3, ad 3^{m}). And since, according to the order of the Creator, sexual pleasure is in function of generation to facilitate the fulfillment of a task necessary for the preservation of the species, but at the same time laden with obligations and burdens, it follows that it is not lawful outside of marriage, which has generation as its essential and primary end.

I. Theology

1. Species

Chastity is divided into perfect and imperfect or common. Perfect chastity consists in the complete renunciation of every sexual pleasure, even that which is lawful in marriage (from this aspect it coincides with virginity); imperfect chastity consists in the renunciation of sexual pleasures forbidden according to the state of life in which one finds oneself. Therefore, every sexual pleasure remains forbidden to all both before marriage (premarital or youthful chastity) and in the state of widowhood (widowed chastity); in the married state, however, those acts remain forbidden which go against the end and prerogatives of marriage. From this it is deduced that common chastity is always a duty for all and admits no exceptions; while perfect chastity is a matter of free choice, constitutes one of the evangelical counsels, and can become a duty in certain particular states (v. celibacy; VIRGINITY).

Generally, chastity is a virtue of struggle and conquest, following the rebellion of the flesh against the spirit, provoked by original sin; but it can happen that God grants not only a ready and even easy victory over temptation, but the definitive suppression of every sexual movement; this is then the gift of chastity (cf. the example of St. Thomas Aquinas, in L. H. Petitot, S. Thomas d'A., Paris 1923, p. 32).

2. Concomitant virtues of chastity

a) The first guardian of chastity is the sentiment of modesty, which is a delicate sensitivity to all that can lower human dignity and recoil from any manifestation that hints at sexual relations; it is, however, fundamentally a gift of nature, something instinctive and not a conquest of the will. The will, however, can influence it so as to weaken it and even make it disappear, as well as refine and orient it in a way that increases its efficacy (cf. J. de la Vaissière, La pudour instinctive, Paris 1935). - b) Above the sentiment and already in the realm of virtue are: 1) purity, which has as its object discretion, reserve, and respect for all that pertains to generation, especially when manifested in external acts (Sum. theol., 2^{a}-2^{ac}, q. 151, a. 4); 2) continence, which is the constant will to preserve chastity by overcoming any contrary difficulty; 3) temperance, which, although distinct from chastity in its immediate object—namely, the regulation of the pleasures of the nutritive function—nevertheless greatly benefits chastity, both because it preserves it from the dangers that arise from intemperance and because, given the interdependence of human acts and habits, it contributes to strengthening the soul's mastery over the senses (ibid., a. 3).

3. Motives and advantages

The virtue of chastity can rest on motives that are merely of rational order, such

The commandment of the natural law, the respect for the dignity of the human person, the order in the social life, the pride in keeping the flesh subject to the spirit and overcoming, by victory, the eternal antagonism that divides them (cf. Rom. 7:14-25), the advantages that derive from this for the individual in body and soul; for the family, which thus remains better bound by a higher and serener love; for society, which is thus preserved from the weakening and decay produced by excesses that transgress the limits and by dissoluteness, the spreader of sickness and of material and moral ruin. These are reasons that, even amid a corruption almost universal, did not escape the pagans, who knew and extolled the merits of chastity in their literature and in their philosophy (cf. Cicero, De nat. deorum, II, 28; Tuscul. disput., I, 30; Sallust, De bello Iugurt., 1-2; Catullus, Carmen, 62:39-58) and knew how to demand from those who approached the divinity and handled sacred things a greater purity, which they indicated with the particular term of castimony; and they surrounded with greater respect, for example, the Vestal Virgins. Moreover, the maxim *casta placent superis* is common, in its innermost meaning, to all peoples.

But faith offers to the practice of chastity other reasons far higher, more valid, and more efficacious: a) the respect for the body, which, through Baptism, with the infusion of sanctifying grace, becomes the temple of the Holy Spirit; it is then, so to speak, consecrated by the real presence of Jesus in the Eucharistic Communion; it is destined, finally, to the glory of the resurrection; b) the dignity of the Christian, who becomes a member of the mystical body, of which Jesus is the head; c) to this must be added the example and the admonition of the Saviour (it suffices to cite the sixth beatitude: “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God” [Mt. 5:8]), and a whole series of praises proclaimed by Holy Scripture either to the virtue itself (Tob. 3:16; Wis. 3:13; Sir. 42:9-10; Is. 56:4-5) or to those who distinguished themselves in it (Joseph [Gen. 39:6-12]; Judith [Jdt. 16:26]; Susanna [Dan. 13:63]); d) chastity has commonly been called in patristic and ascetical literature the “angelic virtue,” because it renders man similar to the angel. And this is true; yet in reality it is a specifically human virtue, because the angel has no body or senses to dominate, whereas man must conquer this mastery for himself.

4. The education in chastity

Chastity is a delicate and fragile virtue, and on the other hand the struggle is arduous and at times painful and heroic (within us flows the stream of concupiscence; we often live surrounded by an environment dense with provocations; we are subject to the temptations of the devil); it is therefore extremely necessary to be vigilant and to use promptly the means that religion and even science suggest to us. The means suggested by science will be indicated further on; as for those suggested by theology and ascetics, they can be divided into positive and negative.

a) Negative means. — The education in chastity requires the avoidance of occasions: idleness; solitude; melancholy and sadness; bad readings that over-excite the imagination and the passions; dangerous spectacles and entertainments; compromising company; situations that favour weaknesses and easy concessions, which gradually make one lose self-control (excessive promiscuity and camaraderie, flirtations, “flirts,” particular friendships).

b) Positive means. — 1) To educate the feeling of modesty, refining it and keeping it in the right mean, which varies according to different ages, professions, and customs, so as to avoid false squeamishness that renders one ridiculous and is at times even dangerous. 2) To educate the will to will resolutely, whatever the cost, reflecting, however, that this often means willing what one would not will. Therefore, to exercise oneself in victory over oneself when the waters are calm, so that the victory may then be easy in the storm. Otherwise, one falls into sluggishness and mere words: “I had asked you for purity with these words: Give me purity and chastity, but do not give it to me now. I was afraid that you would grant it too soon and that I would quickly be delivered from the sickness of sensuality; I preferred to indulge it rather than extinguish it” (St. Augustine, *Confessions*, VIII, ch. 7: PL 32, 757). 3) To educate the intelligence, recalling high ideals, forming healthy convictions to be continually deepened through frequent reflection (one’s own dignity, the beauty of chastity, preparation for marriage, the ideal of virginity or of marriage or of an active apostolate). 4) To guard the senses and the heart. The example of David is a strong lesson: “he saw the woman... and she was very beautiful... and he took her” (2 Sam. 11:2-4). 5) Corporal mortification, expressly recalled by Jesus Christ when it comes to chastity: “This kind of demon is cast out only by prayer and fasting” (Mt. 9:28); to which the Church gives voice in the preface of Lent, making us turn to the Lord, “who by bodily fasting dost curb vices, dost lift up the mind.” 6) Finally, one may recall the great advantages that come from good spiritual direction, to have a guide in temptations, in possible falls, in the efforts to rise again and to persevere.

c) Supernatural means. — All merely natural means, however good, are not sufficient to form a perfectly chaste soul and give it that splendor and grace that conquer; it is necessary to resort to supernatural means: 1) a ever greater awareness of our supernatural greatness: grace, the presence of God in the soul in grace; 2) constant prayer to obtain the strength necessary to conquer, turning especially to the mediation of the

Chastity — In the castle tower, defended by Purity (Manducatio) and Fortitude (Fortitudo). Fresco by the so-called "Master of the Vela," a follower of Giotto (14th century). Assisi, Lower Church of St. Francis.

5. The concept of chastity

Chastity is the virtue that moderates the desire for and use of venereal pleasures according to the principles of right reason. It is a moral virtue, distinct from purity, which is a physical quality. Chastity is not merely abstinence from venereal acts but also the right ordering of the sexual instinct within the individual and in relation to others. It is a virtue that perfects the person and is essential for the spiritual life.

6. The practice of chastity

The practice of chastity involves: 1) A clear understanding of the biological and psychological development of the individual, especially during adolescence and youth, when the sexual instinct awakens and requires careful guidance. 2) Frequent reception of the sacraments, particularly Confession and Holy Communion, which are called the "bread of angels" and the "wine that gives birth to virgins."

7. Educating toward chastity

For those who address this delicate and challenging issue—parents, educators, confessors—it is necessary: a) To have a clear knowledge of what biology teaches about the various stages of development, the different ages, and the physiological and psychological phenomena that accompany them. Indeed, the method to be employed must vary according to the stage, as the tendencies, thoughts, aspirations, and knowledge that open up the minds differ. The situations of environment and companionship also vary. The right word must be given for each particular case, limited to the needs of knowledge, correction, and guidance (see below: II. Medicine). b) Even more necessary is a deep sense of understanding and compassion, indeed of anticipated forbearance, which stifles any surprise before hearts that open and await a word that will animate or reanimate them, a counsel that will guide or recall them. Nothing is more illegitimate than surprise and mistrust in an educator, for hearts might close, and fatal consequences could follow. c) Regarding the ever-debated issue of "sexual instruction," see Sexuality, Education.

8. Chastity is neither impossible nor harmful

To excuse failures in the realm of chastity, an elaborate web of pretexts and excuses has been woven. But these are nothing more than attempts to palliate the lack of self-discipline and self-mastery and betray only the indulgent weakness that recoils from effort. Two pretexts, however, have been adorned with the trappings of false science: "chastity is impossible" and "chastity is harmful to health and character." Neither of these pretexts has any scientific foundation. "The entire history of the Church, through its saints, its popes, its founders of religious orders, its missionaries, and its countless works, attests that continence is neither a factor of physical weakening nor of moral diminishment. Continence preserves a reserve of strength. Sexual economy favors longevity and various forms of intellectual activity" (cf. E. Bon, *Medicina e religione*, Italian trans., 2nd ed., Turin 1946, pp. 650-51). The same observation is confirmed by numerous surveys conducted among physicians and young people (cf., e.g., F. Olgiati, *I nostri giovani e la purezza*, Milan 1918; L. Scremin, *La continenza sessuale giovanile e l'igiene*, Turin 1944). It can therefore be said that the battle for chastity is difficult and sometimes demands heroism; but for this, the means offered especially by religion are of great help. It may also be observed that there may be particular cases in which the warning of St. Paul applies: "I say to the unmarried and to widows: it is good for them if they remain as I am; but if they cannot contain themselves, let them marry; for it is better to marry than to burn" (1 Cor 7:9). Yet one can never advise yielding to sexual impulse, just as one would not advise suicide to someone driven to it, for impulses must be corrected, not indulged.

9. Vow of chastity

The vow of chastity entails two things: a) Renunciation of marriage; b) Prohibition, for a further reason deriving from the virtue of religion, of what is already forbidden by the Sixth and Ninth Commandments.

of a sacred Order constitute a diriment impediment to marriage, rendering it, that is, invalid (CIC cann. 1072-73); 2) an attempt at marriage after solemn vows or sacred Orders incurs a latae sententiae excommunication reserved simply to the Holy See (can. 2388 § 1); 3) a simple vow of chastity, taken by the majority of religious men and women (and also by some living in the world), constitutes for marriage only an impedient impediment, leaving it valid but illicit (can. 1058), and incurs a latae sententiae excommunication reserved to the Ordinary (can. 2388 § 2).

b) Violation of the vow of chastity — For those bound by a vow of chastity, whether simple or solemn, every sin against the 6th and 9th Commandments acquires an additional malice, being also a sin against the virtue of religion.

c) Conditions of the vow of chastity — 1) It may be perpetual or temporary; for those living in the world, it may pertain to perfect chastity or even to common chastity in its various states; 2) it always requires, however, for its validity, that it be a fully voluntary act, which presupposes knowledge, at least in substance, of the object of the vow.

Celestino Testore

II. Medicine

10. Natural means

Regarding the preservation of the virtue of chastity, for the Christian the primary means, in an absolute sense, are the moral means that direct and sustain the will with the supernatural aid of divine grace. Yet, keeping in mind our nature, the natural aids placed at our disposal by medicine and pedagogy should not be neglected. Hence arises the necessity that the work of the priest or educator, especially when vicious inclination is strong, be supported by that of a physician who is certainly Christian; this is an absolute condition, because *nisi doctor vere christianus sit, gravium malorum causa esse potest* (G. Antonelli, *Medicina pastoralis*, I, Rome 1903, n. 547).

The natural means that medicine can place at the service of morality for the preservation of chastity are of an hygienic, medicinal, and psychological order; the study and application of medicinal means fall within the competence of the physician.

11. Hygienic means

In normal and rationally educated subjects, the virtue of chastity (understood as freely willed continence) can be facilitated by general hygiene, without resorting to direct therapeutic interventions. If general hygienic norms prove ineffective, one must suspect systematic incontinence arising from some mental illness (e.g., dementia praecox) or abnormal stimulation in the distinctly morbid forms of hypergenitalism. In such cases, the “cure” of incontinence is the cure of the mental illness and of the “hypergenital temperament” that accompanies endocrine disorders, and falls within the competence of the general practitioner or specialist.

With regard to favorable general hygiene, it is necessary to insist on the exclusion or very moderate use of coffee and alcohol, particularly concerning spirituous or highly alcoholic beverages (liqueurs, aperitifs, spirits). From the standpoint of quality, a well-regulated and well-chosen diet can be of great assistance in preserving chastity. A dietary regimen low in protein substances, particularly those of animal origin (v. ASTINENZA), combined with a lifestyle in which work and rest, exercise and sport in the open air, and sufficient sleep (but one that does not degenerate into laziness and softness), on a fresh and hard bed (the straw mattress of corn husks is excellent), are regulated with strict criteria of balance, respecting the natural needs of our being — such an orderly hygienic regimen represents a far more valuable aid than might appear at first glance.

Constipation and insomnia should be taken seriously and carefully eliminated. Physical activity and appropriate nutrition, combined with regular habits and bowel movements, are far more effective than many laxatives and do not carry their harmful effects. If there is insomnia—meaning the individual struggles to fall asleep and this is not due to poor evening habits (such as staying up late, engaging in stimulating entertainment in the evening, or misusing bedtime reading to induce sleep)—it is advisable to use mild sedatives for the nervous system (chamomile or lemon balm tea, possibly with 20–60 drops of etheric valerian tincture, or alcoholic tincture of passionflower, or fluid extract of hawthorn flowers, or ¼–1 tablet of luminal or gardenal at 0.10 mg); in more resistant cases, the physician may suggest a stronger hypnotic drug. Sexual overstimulation is sometimes promoted by local causes (urinary infections, metabolic disorders, parasites) and minor malformations, the most troublesome of which is phimosis, for which warm water cleansing is sufficient in mild cases, while severe cases require surgical treatment.

12. Medicinal remedies

Hygienic precautions to facilitate the struggle for the attainment of continence operate particularly on a negative level, aimed at excluding or at least minimizing the intake of “aphrodisiac” causes—that is, anything in the form of food, drugs, stimulants, sensory excitations (smell, hearing, sight), images, and mental recollections with sexual content that excite erotic feeling and promote sexual reflexes (erection, ejaculation). The action of aphrodisiacs can be indirect, through modifications of the general state, or direct, by heightening the excitability of one or another part of the reproductive system (cerebral centers, spinal centers, peripheral reflex zones). Knowledge of substances and circumstances with aphrodisiac effects and reasonable abstinence from them can be very useful in the struggle to preserve continence. Morally, it is not permissible for a physician to prescribe or for an individual to take aphrodisiacs when the person is not in a position to use the sexual faculty legitimately (i.e., in marriage). If the substances used, beyond their aphrodisiac effect, also have other necessary or simply beneficial actions for the general well-being of the organism, their administration is licit by virtue of the principle of double effect. The administration of testicular extracts is not morally prohibited, given their predominantly tonic and general strengthening action (v. ENDOCRINE, GLANDOLE).

Conversely, a positive role can be played by medicinal “anaphrodisiacs,” which aim to reduce the irritability of reflex and genital zones and the reflex nervous excitability of the spinal sexual centers (sacral and lumbar for erection and ejaculation), the sensory and psychic cortical zones, and the subcortical nuclei of gray matter, particularly the “optic thalami,” where the affective and emotional content of sensations is elaborated and utilized.

Drugs that specifically reduce sexual sensitivity were once known, from camphor “per nares” according to the aphorism of the Salernitan school, to plants such as agnocasto and flax (for cilices and garments); but in reality, if sedatives of sexual sensitivity exist, they coincide with general sedatives of the nervous system, such as bromides, alone or combined with camphor (monobromated camphor: 0.20–0.40 mg, two or three times a day). Hops and lupulin, once highly esteemed as anaphrodisiacs, are now considered almost devoid of efficacy.

The only true specific therapy for incontinence, when a habit has formed that allows peripheral stimuli to impose themselves urgently on the nervous centers and strain goodwill and sincere resolve, is surface anesthesia of the glans in men, according to S. Baglioni and G. Amantea, using solutions of stovaine or percaine, and of the female erogenous zone with cold applications.

13. Psychological remedies

These can be highly effective not in the form of suggestion, which is always a form of coercion, but as persuasion. The causes (or plausible pretexts) of incontinence may be deep-seated; when their root is reached, one sometimes finds a certain coherence that imposes itself on the individual. Often lacking is the rational conviction that the pursuit of sexual pleasure as an end in itself is a grave moral evil (a lack, unfortunately, sometimes cultivated by those who fear that removing it would transform a material sin into a formal one). Added to this is the idea that one should use the sexual function early to promote better development of the sexual organs and prevent disease. At other times, a perceived (or real) imperfection drives the individual away from the idea and hope of marriage, leaving them in a state conducive to unnatural forms of incontinence. Or it may be uncertainty about life or vocation, or a kind of “masculine protest” (Adler), which the young person unconsciously believes is owed to their sexual dignity. Far more and far better than physical or pharmacological treatments, here psychological therapy—supported by faith—prevails over vice and transforms continence, understood in its natural value, into a desired and consciously practiced affirmation of character and dignity.

14. The education of continence and the physician

Anyone who understands how things work knows that the true and irreplaceable educator of continence is the mother. Yet here the physician has the task of combating the widespread prejudice in the feminine world that male youth cannot, for physiological reasons, live chastely while awaiting marriage. The mother, freed from this prejudice, can educate children of both sexes in a unified sexual morality, drawing on the resources of religion. Only religion opens the mind to understand and appreciate the reasons for premarital continence, and by making known the sanctions against transgressors, it strengthens personal responsibility and clearly shows the gravity of natural and divine law. However, it is necessary that parents be supported in their work by the physician’s word, which demolishes erroneous interpretations of certain physiological phenomena that occur during normal sexual development—for example, spontaneous seminal emissions in adolescents, which are a source of confusion and error unfavorable to continence, and which cause parents anxiety due to the mistaken belief that they represent a harm to health and a sign of the need for sexual activity. The physician, unburdened by prejudice or dishonesty and fortified by experience, can affirm that continence can be lived and maintained uninterruptedly from puberty—or regained if lost—without harm to the individual’s physical or mental health.

It is the physician’s task to answer the question of whether sexual renunciation is or can be harmful to nervous or mental equilibrium. This issue is dominated more by psychological and moral factors than by organic ones, because continence is all the more harmless the more it expresses a purpose and a “purity of heart” to which incontinence, not continence, is grave and repugnant. Medicine that would reduce itself to mere pathological physiology misunderstands this problem, as do those medico-psychological attitudes that fail to recognize the objective validity of moral law. Thus, “that physician who considers continence harmful ignores the powerful significance of the ethical moment” (Monakow); this “ethical moment” is not fear, aesthetics, or mysticism, but a rational conviction that sexuality is not autonomous or anarchic, and that there exists a sexual morality as part of a broader moral order. The truth is that renunciation is less difficult when instinct has not been artificially stimulated or deviated from its origin, and it is the task of education to prevent such stimulations and deviations.

The relationship between continence and psychic hygiene presents itself differently according to age and circumstances. After Freud, who launched an offensive against sexual morality, it is essential to mention infantile continence in its three phases: the first preceding the "Oedipus complex," the second when the subject is subject to it (around the end of the third year in males), and the third when the subject is finally freed from it (v. PSYCHOANALYSIS). According to the "sexual metaphysics" of psychoanalysis, in this last phase the cause of conflicts and consequent psychoneuroses is placed in the subconscious, with which continence will later come into conflict. Taking into account the criticisms of Sachs and Jung, from the submerged elements of truth in the Freudian construction it is concluded that curiosity and sexual interest awaken early; hence the pedagogical conclusion not to exacerbate the former nor to evade the latter with fables too distant from the truth, with drastic prohibitions, threats, or inconsiderate punishments. The prepubescent period is the most suitable for correcting any sexual defects that could later complicate the problem of continence (phimosis, cryptorchidism, adipo-genital dystrophy).

Continence in adolescence is certainly not harmful (pathogenetic), but it can become the nucleus of obsessive ideas and scruples (pathoplastic) when pubertal phenomena pose the first vivid questions to the adolescent. Nature, which is disposed toward the function and makes it understandable, indicates the opportune time for the first concrete clarifications, without which continence finds no motive and those phenomena remain, i.e., become, mysterious. If disclosed, the exact interpretation would explain the motives of continence and prevent the formation of scruples; if concealed (due to the discomfort the adolescent feels at the mere thought of revealing them), they can create an "inferiority complex," unfavorable to continence, and in any case prevent the achievement of that balance between intellectual virtue and moral virtue that alone makes youthful continence healthy, joyful, and fruitful. It is only insufficient education that causes those psychological disturbances that unfortunately pass as "continence diseases." Naturally, such instruction must be imparted with great wisdom and deference to the concrete situations of the various subjects.

It is not continence itself that is harmful, but the false ideas that adolescents form about the meaning of sexual attraction, about periodic hemorrhages, about seminal emissions during sleep, and possibly about the consequences of masturbation (which are sometimes even confused with venereal diseases). If false concepts about the consequences of masturbation persist even after the bad habit has ceased, the fear or terror that these may last or manifest themselves later removes the tranquility and serenity that are the fruit of confident continence.

Particularly, according to Marañón, continence in adolescence, until complete sexual development and differentiation in males, avoids the risk of placing sexuality on a false path; indeed, according to the Spanish clinician, youthful continence, up to the age of 25 in our climates, is a good condition for effectively combating the attenuated forms of psychic intersexuality, which is of great importance in the conduct of many men.

In youth, for both sexes, continence is mostly a continence of waiting, and as such does not preclude the possibility of "occasions" that are often inevitable and may put it to a severe test—something that does not happen with that continence which is announced from the outset as perpetual and thus enjoys itself. It is certain that the continence of waiting during an engagement can be troublesome, particularly in males, because the "occasion" is necessarily close at hand and not indecorous. Even among morally healthy and pure-hearted people, there may come a critical moment when the intensity of love approaches the threshold of modesty and love more urgently seeks union. Self-discipline, as it must, can impose itself, but the conflict between nature and will becomes acute and gives rise to more or less intense pains in the sexual sphere that seminal emission would dispel. These "fiancés' pains" are not dangerous, and, when the patient understands their meaning, they have no repercussions in the psychic sphere.

A continence imposed by external circumstances—even for one who has a vocation to marriage—is easily bearable by a normal person who knows how to organize their activities, and more easily so by a woman. It can, however, become psychologically painful for those who are or believe themselves to be homosexual, repelled by both marriage and the prospect of following their deviation. This continence is lived without satisfaction, as a "destiny," and the patient takes refuge in it as the only solution allowed. It is claimed that a connection may exist between repressed homosexuality and paranoia; but Hastings tends to believe that paranoid symptoms are less severe when resistance to the deviation is conscious. This example would again demonstrate that the psychological and psychic consequences of continence, even in extreme cases, are always less unfavorable when consciousness clearly grasps the terms of the conflict and the moral virtue of continence is not divorced from intellectual life (knowledge of the reasons why the will chooses continence).

**

**Iconography.** — Some of the earliest Christian writers (Hermas, Tertullian) imagined her as an Amazon; Prudentius, in the *Psychomachia*, depicts her in combat against lust. In some 9th-century miniatures she is represented with helmet and armor (Bern manuscript, Charles the Bald Bible in the National Library of Paris); and later so too painters and sculptors north of the Alps (portals of the churches of Amiens, Paris, Aulnay, Reims). One of the few medieval depictions of Continence in a peaceful attitude, as a crowned queen with a flowering scepter, is in the transept of the cathedral of Chartres.

Three (13th century); sometimes its emblem is a bird surrounded by a circle of flames.

Less common in Italy (St Mark’s, Venice), it often recurs in medieval depictions of Temperance. Among the earliest depictions of the Triumph of Chastity are those by the “Maestro delle Vele” in the basilica of St Francis at Assisi. Petrarch’s *Trionfi* exerted great influence on later depictions (15th century), which are especially frequent on wedding chests, where Chastity appears in a chariot drawn by unicorns, as a young woman, sometimes leaning against a column, with or without wings, with or without a nimbus.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Perugino (Louvre), Luca Signorelli (National Gallery, London) and Lorenzo Lotto (Palavicini Gallery, Rome) show absolute independence from traditional models, which continued to be followed in illuminated manuscripts. While the French preferred emblems (in the stained glass of the church of Érye, early 16th century, the chariot of Chastity is drawn by an owl and an elephant), the depiction of her within a fortress still persisted (illuminated manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris).

The Flemish sometimes represented her as an old crone brandishing a sprinkler (engravings by Martin Heemskerk, 16th century).