WESTERN SCHISM. — This was the gravest peril that threatened the entire structure of the Western Church in the transition from the fourteenth to the fifteenth century. The long sojourn of the popes in southern France had by then fostered the conviction that a return of the Roman Curia to Rome was neither desirable nor practically feasible, so many were the interests that conspired to keep it there. The return to Italy of Urban V (1369–70) had been short-lived; that of Gregory XI (1377) had only been achieved after tenacious resistance. The death of Gregory XI in Rome (26 March 1378) had come too soon, before he had been able to take the measures that would truly secure the papacy’s residence in Rome; above all because the cardinals were for the most part French, as were the lower-ranking curial officials.
At Gregory’s death, therefore, the Romans feared that the new pontiff might transfer his see beyond the Alps and began to make their voices heard, demanding a Roman or at least an Italian pope, though without imposing the choice of one or another individual. Meanwhile, Castel Sant’Angelo, held by a Frenchman who represented the entire Sacred College, could at any moment serve as a refuge for the electors. The French cardinals themselves were divided into two factions and unable to muster the two-thirds majority for a candidate from either party. Thus they settled on an outsider to the Sacred College, a well-known curial prelate, Bartolomeo Prignano, archbishop of Bari, who took the name of Urban VI (8 April) and was duly crowned and recognized by all. He immediately manifested his intention of not
WESTERN SCHISM — The “des Champenoux” Gate surmounted by the coat of arms of Pope Clement VI (1342–52) — Avignon, Papal Palace.
allowing the Curia to return to Avignon. The cardinals, however, soon realized that Urban’s harshness and his disregard for their privileges were making his rule unbearable. Five months after his election, they declared his pontificate invalid and proceeded to a new election, choosing Robert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement VII (20 September 1378) and established himself at Avignon. Thus began the Western Schism, which lasted nearly forty years.
The situation was further complicated by the fact that the two popes, each claiming legitimacy, excommunicated one another and their respective followers. The princes of Europe were divided in their allegiance, and the faithful were left in perplexity. The schism spread to universities, cities, and even monasteries, where monks took sides for one pope or the other. The kings of France, Spain, Scotland, and Naples adhered to the Avignon obedience, while the emperor, the kings of England, Hungary, Poland, and the Scandinavian countries, and most of the Italian states recognized the Roman obedience. Germany was divided, and the Italian peninsula itself was split, with some cities siding with Rome and others with Avignon.
The schism also gave rise to a series of theological and canonical disputes. Some theologians argued that a pope who had been legitimately elected could not be deposed, even for heresy, while others maintained that a pope who became a heretic automatically lost his office. The universities of Paris, Toulouse, and Vienna played a significant role in these debates. The University of Paris, in particular, proposed a solution: the calling of a general council that would have authority over the pope himself. This idea, though initially resisted by both obediences, gradually gained ground.
After the death of Urban VI (1389) and Clement VII (1394), the cardinals of both obediences attempted to resolve the schism by negotiating the abdication of both claimants and the election of a new pope. These negotiations, known as the “via cessionis,” failed due to the intransigence of both popes and their supporters. The situation remained deadlocked until the Council of Pisa (1409), which deposed both Gregory XII (the successor of Urban VI) and Benedict XIII (the successor of Clement VII) and elected Alexander V. However, neither Gregory nor Benedict recognized the council’s authority, and thus the schism continued with three claimants to the papacy.
The crisis reached its peak with the Council of Constance (1414–1418), convened by Emperor Sigismund. The council deposed John XXIII (the successor of Alexander V), secured the abdication of Gregory XII, and deposed Benedict XIII. It then elected Martin V (11 November 1417), who was recognized by all but a small group loyal to Benedict XIII at Peñíscola. The schism thus came to an end, though its consequences lingered. The council’s decrees, particularly the decree *Haec sancta* (1415), asserted the superiority of a general council over the pope in matters of faith, discipline, and reform, a principle that would later be enshrined in the Gallican Articles of 1682.
The new spirit that had taken hold in the Church, which in those years reached its most acute and intolerant expression in Bohemia with the Hussite heresy, found expression in the Council of Pavia-Siena (1423–24), which, however, failed to achieve any practical reform. A more dramatic episode unfolded with the Council of Basel (see BASEL, COUNCIL OF), which, convened in 1431 with papal consent, rebelled against Eugenius IV in 1437 and elected Felix V as antipope (5 December 1439). Meanwhile, Eugenius IV convened the Council of Ferrara-Florence for union with the East, while the Council of Basel moved to Lausanne and then dissolved, with Felix V resigning on 7 April 1449.