CONSTANCE. - A moral virtue that gives the soul constancy in performing good deeds, safeguarding it against difficulties arising from external sources: discouragement, disappointments, laxity, ridicule, blame, flattery, bad examples, persecutions (cf. *Sum. Theol.*, 2a-2ae, q. 137, a. 3). It is a potential virtue of fortitude. Its importance is evident from the fact that, in fallen human nature, performing good deeds always requires effort; all the more so when, alongside the weakness of nature, the aforementioned difficulties arise, which in certain circumstances and environments may demand an heroic way of life. Forming the "fortem et teneam propositi virum" of Horace (*Carmina*, III, 3) requires a resolute will to endure, whatever may happen. Without constancy, moreover, all other virtues and good intentions either remain dead letters or are doomed to sterility. For this reason, Holy Scripture insists on the necessity of constancy, especially in spiritual life (*Ecclesiasticus*, 2:16; 27:12; *Psalm* 17:38; *Matthew* 10:22; *John* 4:34; 17:4; *1 Corinthians* 9:24; 15:58; *2 John* 8:9, etc.), which ultimately boils down to the common-sense maxim: "He who endures, wins."
Like all other moral virtues, constancy can be either acquired or infused. It is *acquired* when, within the natural realm, it is attained through the repetition of acts (a small sacrifice each day, a good deed each day, a purpose, a commitment to be observed with special care for a set number of days) and fundamentally serves the formation of character and personality; it is *infused*, descending into the soul with Baptism and operating in the supernatural realm, and is cultivated through prayer, reflection on heavenly joys and the vanity of earthly transitory ones, the heroic beauty—though hidden—of sacrifice, indeed even of the fulfillment of daily duty, and the reversibility of strength and grace, whereby every action of each person affects the souls of others.
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CONSTANCE. - A city and ancient diocese in southern Germany, situated on the lake of the same name and on the Rhine, near the Swiss border. It has a predominantly Catholic population. The diocese was founded around the mid-6th century for the evangelization of the region; initially, it was a suffragan of Besançon and later of Mainz.
Some scholars believe that the see of Vindonissa was transferred to Constance, but L. M. O. Duchesne (*Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule*, III, Paris 1915, pp. 21 ff. and 259) disputes this. The first known bishop is Gaudentius, who died in 613. Notable bishops include Solomon I (839-871), Solomon III (890-919), St. Conrad (935-975), and Gerard II (979-995). The diocese’s boundaries expanded to become the largest in Germany, encompassing ten archdeaconries and 64 deaneries.
In 1435, the diocese included 17,060 priests, 1,760 parish priests, and 350 monasteries, among which the most famous were Reichenau and St. Gall (q.v.). The latter abbey engaged in a long dispute with the bishops of Constance during the 17th and 18th centuries.
The diocese of Constance began to decline in importance from the mid-15th century onward. In 1821, Pope Pius VII established the Archdiocese of Freiburg in Baden and suppressed the Diocese of Constance.
The cathedral church was dedicated to St. Mary (Marien-Münster), built in the 6th century atop a Roman castle; under Bishop Lambert (995-1018), a crypt was added. It was restored under Gerard III in 1089; the cruciform structure, with three naves divided by columns, features a choir by Simone Haider and Nicholas of Leyden (15th century). St. James (Schotten) was founded in 653, St. John and the Teutonic Knights in 1276, and St. Stephen, of Romanesque origin, was enlarged in the 15th century. Notable as well are the convents of the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, all from the 13th century, and the Jesuit college (1592-1774), with its Baroque church.
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THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. - It was convoked by a solemn bull dated October 30, 1413, by John XXIII, prompted by the insistence of Sigismund, King of Hungary and later King of Germany. Its primary aim was to restore peace and unity to a Church torn by schism since 1378, divided as it was into three obediences: that of Benedict XIII, the Avignon antipope; that of John XXIII of the Pisan obedience; and that of the legitimate pope, Gregory XII, the true successor of Urban VI. A secondary aim was to promote Church reform and condemn the heresies that had arisen in England and Bohemia.
The Council was opened by John on November 5, 1414, and Sigismund soon arrived. It organized itself into the four nations, as at Pisa, and doctors and representatives of princes were admitted to the vote. However, John, alarmed by rumors circulating about him, secretly left Constance on March 20, 1415. The Council would have dissolved without Sigismund’s energy; instead, during the tumultuous sessions from March 29 to April 6, it declared itself legitimately assembled, denied anyone the right to dissolve or transfer it, and resolved to continue its work of pacification and reform. In doing so, it placed itself above a pope whose legitimacy it had itself acknowledged. After much hesitation, John was compelled to yield and surrender himself to the Council, which, after a trial, condemned him to deposition (May 29). John accepted the sentence. Gregory XII, for his part, sent Carlo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini, as his representative to King Sigismund, with authority to negotiate his resignation. Cardinal Giovanni Dominici, in his name, convened the Council, communicated his authority to act for the best interests of the Church, and presented Gregory’s formal resignation (July 4); thus, the legitimate pope safeguarded his dignity by sacrificing himself for peace and concord. Benedict XIII refused to appear or resign; his protests were disregarded, and a trial was held, ending in his deposition (July 26, 1417).
During this long interlude, the Council had entrusted the case of John Hus and Jerome of Prague—who, as unrepentant heretics, ended up at the stake—to Cardinal Peter of Ailly, Archbishop of Cambrai, and a special tribunal. It was therefore necessary to provide the Church with a head: all the cardinals present were admitted to the election, regardless of which pope had appointed them; there were 23 of them, and to these were added 30 electors chosen by the Council from various nations. They entered the Conclave in the city palace on 8 November 1417, and on the 11th elected Cardinal Oddone Colonna, who took the name Martin V. After promulgating some reform decrees—particularly imposing the periodicity of ecumenical councils—the Council dissolved on 21 March 1418 in its 45th session with a general approval of the Pope. The long schism was thus ended; but its consequences were not removed: the feelings of suspicion and jealousy between nation and nation, the mistrust toward the Apostolic See, to which the principal responsibility for past evils was attributed, that kind of superior guardianship that the Council had attempted to arrogate to itself over the Church by considering itself the ultimate supreme arbiter in matters of faith and discipline. The abuses, which had grown enormously because of the schism, could no longer be eradicated, precisely because of the ill will of those—clergy and laity alike—who profited from them, while readily shifting all the blame onto the Roman Curia.