Bologna, Archdiocese of

BOLOGNA, ARCHDIOCESE OF. - Capital of the province of the same name and the principal city of one of the most fertile and history-rich regions, Emilia, B. currently has a population of 270,000 inhabitants. The diocese counts 691,473 in total, almost all Catholics. The city is dense with churches (more than one hundred and thirty), in its still medieval appearance; and the diocese too is very rich in convents and churches. The clergy is numerous: 568 diocesan priests and 190 regulars, 425 parishes (1948). Patron saint: St. Petronius.

I. HISTORY

On the site of the Etruscan Felsina, as the remains of its necropolis, dating back to the 6th century B.C., still attest, the Romans founded in 189 a colony, Bononia (Livy, XXXVII, 57). Already risen to notable economic importance under the Etruscans, it received from its character as an outpost toward the Gauls the appearance of a fortified camp. It became a municipium a century after its foundation, during the Social War, and was assigned to the Lemonia tribe. In 53 A.D. it was destroyed by a fire; Claudius rebuilt it, through the intercession of the young Nero. It was in full decline in the 4th century (St. Ambrose, Epistolae, II, 8): but this did not prevent it from withstanding the onslaught of the Visigoths of Alaric in 410. Sacked and half-destroyed, it rose again from its ruins through the work of its bishop Petronius (v.).

The martyrs of Bologna are mentioned at the end of the 4th century by Victricius of Rouen (De laude sanctorum: PL 20, 448, 453); they are the same ones whom a little later Paulinus of Nola points out: Vitalem, Agricolam, Proculumque Bononia condit. Carm. 37, 432 (ed. G. de Hartel, in CSEL, 30, II, p. 281). Of Vitalis and Agricola it is known that their remains were found in Bologna in the Iudaeorum [quarter] only in the time of St. Ambrose (Exhort. Virg., 1: PL 16, 336). In the 6th century they were venerated in a basilica to the east of the city, later the church of Sts. Peter and Paul, from which they were removed in 1019. There Christian sepulchral inscriptions from the end of the 4th century and the beginning of the 5th were found (CIL XI, 1, 802-802, 814-15). Of Proculus, on the other hand, there are only acts written in the 12th century (BHL, 6954, 6956), while there is record of a porta 1. Proculi and of a basilica erected over his tomb outside the city by bishop Gaudentius between the 7th and 8th centuries. The list of the ancient bishops of Bologna is found in an 11th-century manuscript formerly from the library of S. Salvatore di Reno (called for this reason the Rhenish list), which has Zama as first and Eusebius as fifth, the latter present at the synod of Aquileia of 381 and to whom St. Ambrose wrote two letters (A. Testi Rasponi, Note marginali al Liber Pontificalis di Agnello, in Atti e Memorie della r. Dep. di storia patria per le prov. di Romagna, 4th series, 1 [1911, IV-VI], pp. 397-464). Seventh is Felix, mentioned by St. Ambrose and by Paulinus of Nola, between the end of the 4th century and the first thirty years of the 5th.

Eighth in the series, in the catalogue discovered by Lanzoni, the bishop St. Petronius already appeared to his contemporaries worthy of being compared to the greatest bishops of Christendom: his episcopate took place between 430 and 450. He lost no time in raising Bologna again from the ruins to which the excesses of Magnentius and of Maximus had reduced it. Having obtained funds from the treasury, he distributed them to the Bolognese, rebuilt their houses, repaired the walls, erected new churches. Among these, the extramural basilica of S. Stefano, to which the monastery was annexed, where he himself lived (F. Lanzoni, S. Petronio vescovo di B. nella leggenda e nella storia, Bologna 1907).

The period of the early Middle Ages is the one of greatest obscurity for the history of Bologna: in the Gothic age the political, and perhaps also religious, orientation toward Ravenna continued. From the proximity of the capital it must have drawn its first reawakening: which became oppression when, with Byzantine rule, every initiative was centralized in Ravenna between the 6th and 7th centuries. Having driven the Lombards back beyond the line of the Panaro, through the work of Liutprand, who conquered the Exarchate, Bologna was sacked in 727 or 728. The descent of the Franks and the protection of the Church assumed by the Carolingians, however, tore the city from the Lombards and granted it, with the Exarchate, to the Church: an uncertain subjection in the early times, so that one might rather speak of a double subjection, to Ravenna and to Rome, and under Carolingian control. Bologna then became the seat of the counts. But the scarcity of sources allows one to glimpse only a varying of relations between the powers and a shrinking of the city within its walls (the square boundary of the so-called "four crosses"); there is reason, however, to see in pre-communal Bologna an independent development of life. It nevertheless always remains a spiritual and political dependence on Ravenna: from which Bologna freed itself at the same time, on the one hand with the Council of Guastalla of 1106, on the other with the close struggle against the empire of Henry V, culminating in the razing of the fortress in 1114. Religious autonomy and civil autonomy, conquered together, together laid their foundations for the formation of the commune. But the church of Bologna had already given proof of its own orientation, at the time of the schism of Cadalus, remaining faithful to Alexander II. There is, moreover, an oscillation of fortunes, which follows the fortunes of war and politics: if the Council of Guastalla of 1106 detached Bologna — and with it Modena, Parma, Reggio and Piacenza — from the metropolitan jurisdiction of Ravenna, Paschal II, right at the end of his pontificate, subjected it again, with a bull of 7 Aug. 1118, to the ancient primate. The war that was to divide the two cities ten years later did not fail, on the other hand, to have repercussions also in the field of ecclesiastical relations. Then, while the free commune subjected lands and castles of the countryside, Bologna felt the effects of the renewed imperialist role of its illustrious neighbor: in 1132 it resisted Lothair, who was descending toward Rome in aid of his protégé Innocent II, and obliged him to pitch camp at Medicina; but, under Barbarossa, the schism stirred up by Card. Octavian brought to the Bolognese see an intruder, the canon Samuel, while the legitimate bishop Gerard was deposed in the little council of Lodi. The Bolognese schism was of short duration; the peace of Venice, of 1177, intervened immediately afterward.

The commune was by now considerably strengthened. One of the first to develop (from the very dawn, as it seems, of the year 1000), it did not fail, despite struggles and dissensions, to obtain imperial recognition. Governed in consular form, with a general assembly, or Parliament, and a greater council, it then passed, along with the other Emilian-Lombard communes, to the podestà form. Perhaps already the seat of a school of law in the Roman age, through the personal work of a master, Irnerius, the rediscoverer of Roman law, Bologna had become from the early 12th century a center of legal studies, down to the time of Honorius III, who established there the school of theology; thus the University of Bologna developed, one of the most famous of the Middle Ages. It was already so flourishing in 1225 that Frederick II, in order to favor the new university he had founded at Naples, attempted to draw away from it in mass its lecturers and students, with the interdict, but without succeeding.

In those years, Bologna offered a dwelling to St. Dominic and to St. Francis: the one attracted by the fame of the Studium to found there a community of his order of Preachers (and the Commune granted him the church of S. Nicola alle Vigne), the other by the vastness and the moral needs of the student mass, as well as of the population, to spend there a period of fervent preaching. At Bologna, during the Chapter of his order, St. Dominic died on 6 Aug. 1221: and both then, and the following year, for the canonization decreed by Gregory IX, the commune arranged solemn celebrations.

Shortly after the earthquake of 1223 caused the vaults of the new cathedral of St. Peter, consecrated by Lucius III and already rebuilt on the ruins of the fire of 1130, to collapse. At this time other communities were being organized in B.: the Carmelites, the Armenian Basilians, the Servites. Especially notable was the congregation of the "Frati gaudenti," made up of conventuals and laymen, for the purpose of protecting widows and orphans and preventing civil strife. But the latter raged between Guelphs and Ghibellines in B. as well. Toward the end of the thirteenth century, the commune of B. was declining, showing a tendency toward seigneurial forms, albeit incipient ones.

The thirteenth century, the greatest century in the history of B., had witnessed, with the manifestation of a sum of cultural experiences (expressed in the reforms of the commune and in the lively, vigorous conduct of government, especially when a learned jurist, Rolandino Passeggeri, animated political action), the assumption of a dominant position by the commune in Emilia and Romagna, consecrated in the defeat of Fossalta which had hastened, with the imprisonment of King Enzo, the decline of imperial power in Italy (1249). Meanwhile B. adorned itself with palaces and towers, while the Piazza Maggiore was enlarged, the new, superb palace of the podestà was raised, the temple of St. Francis was built and the tomb of St. Dominic was entrusted to the genius of Niccolò Pisano, and the circuit of the city was expanded with the second walls. The tenacious fidelity to the Guelph cause placed, on the other hand, right on the threshold of the fourteenth century, B. in the hands of the Church.

Rudolph of Habsburg, renouncing in 1274 in favor of the temporal power the rights of the Empire over the lands of the ancient Exarchate, set in motion this solution, consecrated at the beginning of the new century by the sending, as legate, of Card. Orsini. Amid storms and calms, the dominion of the Church would be exercised until 1859 and the plebiscites, in the form, at first, of a high protectorate, made possible by the decline, through internal conflicts and ecclesiastical infiltrations, of the commune.

Beneath the ecclesiastical protection, in fact, and upon the ruins of the communal institutions, the preeminence of certain families also laid in B. the foundations of the signoria.

In 1337 Taddeo Pepoli, after a vain attempt by his father, Romeo, had himself proclaimed lord. The Pontiff parried the move, obliging him to recognize himself, rather than as lord, as vicar, deriving the power from himself and for the Church. Even Pepoli's successors, against the spirit of autonomy of the Bolognese, were obliged to follow the example. When Taddeo died in 1347, his sons sold the city, a few years later, to the Milanese archbishop, Giovanni Visconti. When he too died, in 1354, the signoria was exercised in fact by one of his loyal followers, Giovanni di Oleggio, cruel and avaricious. In the restoration of the goods and authority of the Holy See pursued by Card. Albornoz, on the eve of the return to Rome of the Popes from Avignon, B. too fell in 1360 and papal government was reinstated.

The quiet, however, lasted only a few years: in 1376 the city erected itself into an independent republic. Between the last years of the fourteenth century and the first of the fifteenth, Giovanni Bentivoglio and Carlo Zambeccari threatened its liberty, but by leveraging the not dormant spirits of autonomy. The dominion, by conquest, of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, count of Virtù, aimed at a State larger than that of his ancestors, vanished with his death. And the city returned to the Church.

Precisely in those years the civic pride and the desire of B. not to be second even to Rome animated the superb construction of St. Petronio. Bishop Bartolomeo Raimondi laid its first stone on June 30, 1390; but the work did not proceed with its original momentum because of conflicts and the grave economic difficulties that arose.

Revolts and uprisings continued: through daring deeds and abuses, but also losses and massacres, the signoria of the Bentivoglio established itself for almost a century: from 1446 to 1462 Sante governed with skill, leading B. to the agreements of '47 with Nicholas V, granting the city a quasi-independence, whereby the Bolognese Renaissance reached its culmination, admirably, in splendor of works. Then, from 1462 to 1507, with the government of Giovanni II Bentivoglio, that splendor continued and was completed. But the life and political action of the Bolognese lord ended in sadness, in blood and in the cowardice shown by fleeing before the ranks of Julius II and negotiating with the French. In this period the Bolognese spirits were rekindled even against the high authority of the Church: as in the episode of Albergati (v.).

Toward the end of the century, in 1483, Card. della Rovere, the future Julius II, was cardinal legate of B. and held the see for a long time in commendam. New clashes arose with the central authority, in the early sixteenth century, when the Bentivoglio carried out, between 1507 and 1511, the last two attempts to possess the city, ending with the destruction of their palace and of the statue of Julius II erected by Michelangelo.

Months of unusual fervor, after the coronation in St. Petronio of Emperor Charles V by the hand of Clement VII, were those of the two sessions of the Council of Trent transferred there in 1547. The bishop at that time was Alessandro Campeggi, who called the Jesuits to the city.

(phot. Alinari)
BOLOGNA - Courtyard of the University palace (16th cent.).

On Dec. 10, 1582 Gregory XIII, a Bolognese, erected B. having become the second city of the Papal State, as an archiepiscopal see. With the formal dependence on Ravenna thus ended, which had caused the Bolognese of the Middle Ages so much suffering, the dioceses of Imola, Cervia, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza and Crema became suffragans of the new metropolitan.

Throughout the seventeenth century the finest names of the Roman aristocracy succeeded one another on the chair of St. Petronius: Borghese, Ludovisi, Colonna, Boncompagni. Giacomo Boncompagni raised the great sanctuary of the Madonna della Guardia, which his successor, Card. Prospero Lambertini, completed. Lambertini, a Bolognese, cardinal from 1726, then bishop of Ancona and from there transferred to Bologna in 1731, is the greatest figure of the city's clergy. The impulse he gave to studies, his having caused the convents and churches to flourish again, his spirit and his wisdom as a jurist have not been forgotten. Pope from 1740 to 1758, Benedict XIV remained for another fourteen years the titular of the Bolognese archbishopric in order to pour out with full hands the benefits of his office upon the beloved city and in particular upon the University and the Academy of Sciences, very active cultural centers of the said mater studiorum.

The eighteenth century was for B., rich in art and science: alongside the notable activity in painting, that of the greatest musicologist of the century, Fr. G. B. Martini, and the thousand learned men who adorned the University and the Academy revived, even before Lambertini's work, through the eager and intelligent action of Luigi Ferdinando Marsili, numerous were the scientists who brought luster to the city: from the supreme naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi, to the great physician Marcello Malpighi, to the founder of studies on electricity, Luigi Galvani.

Under Archbishop Andrea Giovanetti the armies and the spirit of the Revolution invaded the Romagne: the diocese then suffered the suppression of the convents, the loss of ecclesiastical property, the reduction of the number of parishes. After 1800 convents and churches rose again, until the suppression of the Congregations after the unification carried out by the Kingdom of Italy.

With Cervia restored by Clement VIII to Ravenna, and Modena, Parma and Piacenza erected into archbishoprics, as seats of autonomous governments, the metropolitan power of the Bolognese church no longer extended beyond Faenza and Imola, as well as, for a time, over the newly erected diocese of Borgo S. Donnino. The wind of revolution stirred B. To the first astonishments and indignations over the blood shed there succeeded patriotic animation, political awakening, admiration for Napoleon, to whom B. gave an extraordinary welcome. And it was glad to take its part in the formation of the democratic states that prelude the Kingdom of Italy. Attitudes of autonomy were not lacking in the city, when it seemed destined to be the head of a State of the Legations, which the consummate skill of Card. Consalvi succeeded in dismantling, reconstituting, for another forty years, the old structure of the Papal State.

In the Risorgimento B., a center from the Restoration onward of the liberal machinations and conspiracies for all the Romagne, played an important part in the revolution of 1831 in central Italy. Once the revolt had broken out in Modena, through the work of Ciro Menotti, B. rose up on Feb. 4, spreading the movement to the Romagne, the Marche and Umbria. It was the ephemeral government of the United Provinces, which saw B. as its capital; until the Austrian intervention once again annihilated the hopes of the liberals. But against the Austrians and for liberty and unity, B. kept its daring: and it demonstrated this on the fields of '48 and especially in the combat of the Montagnola, against the strong ranks of Welden.

Bibliographical collections: L. Manzoni, Saggio di una bibliografia storica bolognese, Bologna 1888; L. Frati, Opere della bibliografia bolognese che si conservano nella bibl. Municipale di B., 2 vols., ibid. 1888-89.

Historiography: L. degli Alberti, Hist. di B., Bologna 1541-1591; C. Ghirardacci, Della Historia di B., I, ibid. 1596; II, ibid. 1657; III, edited by A. Sorbelli, ibid. 1928; S. Muzzi, Annali della città di B. dalla sua origine al 1796, 9 vols., ibid. 1840-49; N. Rodolico, Dal Comune alla Signoria: Saggio sul governo di Taddeo Pepoli, ibid. 1898; A. Gaudenzi, L'origine dello studio di B., ibid. 1901; Studi e Mem. per la storia dell'Univer. di B., ibid. 1907 ff.; A. Hessel, Gesch. d. Stadt B. von 1116 bis 1280, Berlin 1910; Lanzoni, pp. 778-90; A. Gaudenzi, Il monastero di Nonantola, il ducato di Persiceto e la chiesa di B., Rome 1916; A. Vincinelli, Il passaggio di B. dal dominio pontificio ai re d'Italia, Bologna 1921-22; G. Zaccagnini, La vita dei maestri e degli scolari nello studio di B. durante il Rinascimento, Geneva 1926;

P. Sella, La diocesi di B. nel 1300, in Atti e mem. dep. st. patr. Romagne, 18 (1929), pp. 97-1555; G. Zaccagnini, Storia dello studio di B. durante il Rinascimento, Geneva 1930; P. Ducati, Storia di B., I: L'età antica, Bologna 1937; A. Sorbelli, Storia di B., II: Dalle origini del cristianesimo agli albori del Comune, ibid. 1938; F. Filippini, S. Petronio vescovo di Bologna, ibid. 1948 (with a list of the titulars of the see of B.).

Pier Fausto Palumbo

II. ART

1. Architecture

The oldest churches that survive today in Bologna all bear witness to the wide diffusion of Lombard Romanesque: nothing in fact remains of the buildings that tradition would have built by Bishop Zama (4th century) and his first successors; the oldest architectural complex is therefore constituted by the buildings of Santo Stefano, whose original core is said to date back to the time of St. Petronius. These buildings underwent remodellings in the Lombard period, until they received their definitive arrangement in the Romanesque age: the churches of Sts. Peter and Paul, of the Crucifix, of St. Stephen, the oratory of the Cross, the courtyard of Pilate and the adjoining cloister present clear Romanesque-Lombard elements, to which is joined a new search for elegance in decoration. To the same period belong the churches of Sts. Vitalis and Agricola in Arena, of St. John in Monte and the cathedral of St. Peter, of which the tower and the lions' doors remain. Romanesque architecture thus left in Bologna a notable complex of religious buildings, which shared the use of terracotta in structure and decoration, the absence of ribs in the vaults, the presence of bell towers flanking the churches, on the model of those of Ravenna.

In the 13th century the new Gothic forms asserted themselves triumphantly, giving the city a typical physiognomy, in some of the most distinguished Italian monuments of the time: such are the churches of St. Dominic (begun in 1221, modernized inside by Dotti in the 18th century); of St. Francis (completed in 1263, it draws directly on the French cathedrals); of St. Mary of the Servants, of St. Martin, of St. James, which accentuate, in the 14th century, their vertical thrust. In the churches, as in the civic buildings, the traditional stamped terracotta decoration persists, an elegant example of which is the bell tower of St. Francis (early 15th century) by M. Antonio di Vincenzo: he was the architect of St. Petronius and provided its design, tempering Gothic verticalism through the use of the square bay and strong polystyle pillars; the three-nave construction was continued in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Gothic style continues even in the full 1400s (apse of the Annunziata, 1475; Guidotti chapel, 1460), delaying the affirmation of Renaissance architecture: this penetrates with the Tuscan forms introduced by Pagno di Lapo (Bentivoglio chapel in St. James, 1445-86; Marescotti chapel in St. Martin, early 16th century; chapel for St. Cecilia in St. John in Monte), alongside which are the solutions of 15th-century northern architecture (the trilobate facade of St. John in Monte, 1474) and the local use of lavish terracotta ornamentation (typical are the facades of the church of the Santa, ca. 1478: the portal is attributed to Sperandio; of the oratory of the Holy Spirit, 1481-97; of the Madonna of Galliera, ca. 1491). Among the rare examples of pure Renaissance taste are the great cloister of St. Francis (after 1472) and those of the former convent of St. Agnes, with Lombard-Bramantesque motifs.

Of far greater importance for the architectural physiognomy of the city were the grandiose classicizing forms of the 1500s, imported from Rome after Bologna passed definitively under papal dominion; the cloister "della Cappella" in the Certosa is inspired by Bramante, the facade of St. Michael in Bosco and the Ghisilardi chapel by Peruzzi. For the fabric of St. Petronius in Bologna worked Serlio, Alessi, Vignola, Palladio, and they contributed largely to determining the local architectural direction of the late 1500s: thus D. and P. Tibaldi influenced it with the construction of the major chapel in St. Peter, of the facade of St. Mary of the Lauds and of the Poggi chapel in St. James the Greater. The teachings of Vignola, together with those of Palladio, are summed up at the close of the century by a group of architects who (F. Ambrosini, P. Fiorini) sometimes achieve nothing but a cold and empty imitation: T. Martelli, on the other hand, left masterpieces of classical grandeur. The familiarity with the severity of 16th-century forms made the introduction of the Baroque manner quite limited, which would assert itself only at the end of the century, in church interiors, with a decorative pomp that nevertheless always takes account of the classical elements, with which it seeks to merge (interiors of St. Mary of Life, by G. B. Bergonzoni; of the Madonna of Galliera, by G. A. Torri; of the Santa, by G. G. Monti). The same characteristics are repeated in the 18th century with C. Dotti and A. Torreggiani; while, after the middle of the century, Bolognese architecture, which did not feel the influence of the Rococo, turned with new enthusiasm to 16th-century forms with F. Tadolini and R. Compagnini. Neoclassicism remained extraneous to the milieu, and 16th-century conventions continue to dominate in the 19th century together with the Romantic interest in medieval monuments (restorations by Rubbiani in St. Francis and in St. Dominic). A typical example of reworking of Romanesque-Oriental motifs remains the church of the Sacred Heart (1912) by E. Collamarini.

2. Sculpture

The scarcity of marble in the Bolognese region must have contributed to the disinterest of local craftsmen with regard to the art of sculpture: thus one can speak of a local plastic tradition only with regard to the typical terracotta ornamentation; the principal works of sculpture, in fact, are at all times due to non-Bolognese artists.

After the rare examples of sculpture from the Lombard period, mostly ornamental in character (basin of Pilate; arch of the Folcherari tomb, in St. Dominic; cross of St. John in Monte, 8th century), plastic production becomes more abundant with the penetration of the Romanesque-Lombard style (sarcophagus of Sts. Vitalis and Agricola, in St. Peter; wayside cross of "Petrus Alberici cum patre", in St. Petronius; stuccoes with the symbols of the Evangelists and Resurrection, in St. Stephen, 13th century; wooden Crucifixion in the crypt of St. Peter), but generally does not reach a high quality. Of particular importance in the 13th century is the area of St. Dominic, the work of Fra Guglielmo.

In the 14th century a large flowering of funerary monuments, on the scheme of the sarcophagus decorated with reliefs on the front and sides, documents the influx of Gothic modes (tomb of T. Pepoli, in S. Domenico; monument of G. da Legnano and of the supposed L. Pini, in the Museo Civico), later interpreted with rare elegance by the Venetians Jacobello and Pierpaolo dalle Masegne in the marble polyptych in S. Francesco (1388): the reliquaries of S. Domenico (1383) and of S. Petronio (1380) reflect its preciousness. Venetian Gothic established itself at the close of the century also through the numerous sculptors of the socle of the facade or of the lateral panels of S. Petronio; and it flowed together, along with Tuscan elements, into the mediocre sculpture of Andrea da Fiesole. Jacopo della Quercia decorated the main portal of S. Petronio from 1425 to 1438, and vigorously imposed the new plastic ideals; numerous Tuscan sculptors followed, such as Niccolò di Pietro Lamberti, Pagno di Lapo, D. Rosselli, A. di Duccio, who held the field in B. in the second half of the 15th century, determining the definitive affirmation of the Tuscan Renaissance manner; Francesco di Simone, in the Tartagni monument in S. Domenico (1477), replaced the traditional motif of the sarcophagus with the scheme of a tabernacle funerary monument, inspired by the Maruppini tomb of Desiderio. After the middle of the century Niccolò dell'Arca came to B., whose sculpture had a very wide influence on the developments of Bolognese plastic art, since it summed up, in an original synthesis, Gothic-Burgundian elements and the complex figurative culture of Ferrara and Emilia (cf. Pietà, in S. Maria della Vita, 1485). Epigones of the tradition of the Emilian plasterers of the 15th century are in B., in the 16th century, Vincenzo Onofri (Pietà, in S. Petronio) and Alfonso Lombardi (Pietà, in S. Pietro), who attempted to achieve new monumental values by drawing close to the models of Raphael and Michelangelo. All the art of the first half of the 16th century is moreover dominated by Michelangelesque ideals, to which an attempt is made to unite the expressive nobility of Andrea Sansovino: the presence of Tribolo, who worked in S. Petronio (1525), contributes to confirming this tendency; and the host of mediocre craftsmen (such as Saccadenari, P. de Rossi, A. Aspertini, G. da Treviso, L. Casario, Zaccaria da Volterra), to whom the panels of the minor doors of the church are owed, repeats and deforms with extreme monotony the models of the great art of the time. The Montorsoli also refers to the same premises in the high altar of the church of the Servi (1558). A certain originality is instead shown by the carvers of the da Formigine family, of whom the greatest representative is Andrea: they sum up the tradition of wood carving, which had produced distinguished works in the choirs of S. Francesco (1407), of S. Petronio (1468-77) and of S. Domenico (1528-40).

The 17th century is represented to a limited extent by the Decollazione di s. Paolo (1641) in the church of the same name, by the Bolognese Algardi, who, rather than affirming Baroque conquests there, demonstrates the links of his sculpture with the painting of his fellow countrymen the Carracci: Camillo Mazza is Algardian in the reliefs of S. Pietro and of the church of the Cappuccini. In the 18th century G. Mazza and A. Piè demonstrate, in the interiors of S. Maria di Galliera, of S. Maria della Vita and of the Santa, that they participate in the rich and elegant taste of the time; but they then link back to the Emilian naturalistic tradition in the human grace of the Madonnas or in the brio of the figurines for the presepio. Not even Giacomo de Maria, a pupil of Canova, disdained the art of the figurine, with whom Neoclassicism penetrated for a short time into B.: it was succeeded by that veristic tendency which has left ample testimony in numerous tombs of the monumental cemetery.

3. Painting

Painting in B. was, through the centuries, essentially "sacred," and not so much for its subjects as for that spirit of religiosity with which the artists appear permeated, more or less genuinely.

Alongside the scanty remains, of mediocre quality, of the 13th-century pictorial production (frescoes now in the museum of S. Stefano and in S. Vittore), the documents of the art of illumination are very rich, since B. was the most distinguished center of illuminated painting of the 13th century; the traditional Byzantine manner is soon replaced, in the decoration of codices, by frequent naturalistic suggestions and a lively illustrative vein, making easy the introduction of the new Tuscan and Giottesque language, while Gothic models remained of scant and limited importance. The figures of Oderisi da Gubbio and of Franco Bolognese present no historical concreteness to this day, in whom it was sought to identify the different tendencies of the illumination of the second half of the 13th century, which are instead summed up, at the beginning of the 14th century, in Niccolò di Giacomo, who pushes narrative fluency and expressive effectiveness almost to the point of caricature. The tradition of illumination, united with Sienese elements of S. Martini, flowed into the painting of Vitale da B., the greatest artistic personality of the first half of the 14th century; while the Giottesque-Riminese tendency is clearly evident in Jacopo Avanzi, identified by some with the "Cugino dei Romagnoli." To the style of such painters are variously linked Andrea da B., Simone dei Crocifissi, the painters of the stories of Pomposa, Lippo di Dalmasio, who prolongs the grace of Vitale down to the beginnings of the 15th century. In the first half of the 15th century pictorial production retraces the 14th-century premises with Pietro Lianori and Orazio di Jacopo; Michele di Matteo di Calcina and Michele di Matteo da Modena instead represent the international taste of Gentile da Fabriano. At the middle of the century Bolognese painting comes into contact, through the altarpiece of A. and B. Vivarini and through the work of Marco Zoppo, with the conclusions of the Paduan art of Mantegna and with the constructive breadth of Piero della Francesca: such elements, united with the precious color and the Ferrarese dramatic violence, will be reconfirmed by F. del Cossa (active in B. from 1472 to 1478), whose school was industrious until the end of the 15th century, and by the stay of Ercole de' Roberti (1482-86). With L. Costa, Ferrarese motifs are modified through contact with the personality of Francesco Raibolini called il Francia: he was the most representative pitter of the late 15th century in Bologna, and his art, marked by a religious lyricism and an ecstatic grace, served to determine a particular physiognomy of painting for about two centuries: Amico Aspertini repeated its graceful forms in the 16th century.

For such aspects of Bolognese art, enormous was the success of the altarpiece of s. Cecilia (1516) in S. Giovanni in Monte, by Raphael: Raphaelism triumphed undisputed for the first thirty years of the century, and then remained fundamental in the eclectic tendency of the rest of the 16th century; painters who came from outside also conformed to it, such as G. da Treviso, G. da Carpi, the Garofalo, the Ortolano, while with the Bagnacavallo, with Biagio dalle Lame,

G. da Cotignola, I. da Imola it declined into the feeblest Mannerism, of which Prospero Fontana was an epigone. Alongside the Raphaelesque ideals were those of Michelangelo represented by the frescoes of P. Tibaldi, and the host of mediocre eclectics who worked at the end of the century (such as the Sabatini, the Samacchini, the Aretusi, the Cesi) sought to avail themselves also of Venetian pictorial values and of the modes of Correggio: the latter dominate in the workshop opened (1572) by the Flem-

go Dionigi Calvaert, and in which L. Carracci trained. A place apart, in such an environment of gray mediocrity, is taken by Niccolò dell'Abate, for the lively and frank sensibility of his art. Toward the end of the century painting underwent a thorough renewal through the work of the Carracci, who reacted against the sterile conformist monotony that preceded them by drawing close again with new fervor to the great models of the 16th century: Roman experiences were programmatically fused with Venetian and Correggioesque ones, arriving at living and original achievements in decorative and landscape painting, better than in canvases on sacred subjects.

Very numerous were the painters trained in the Accademia dei Desiderosi, later degli Incamminati, founded by Agostino in 1585; and the school of the Carracci dominated throughout the 17th century, spreading from B. to Rome and Naples with Domenichino, Albani and Lanfranco: among the major exponents were Guido Reni and Guercino, to whom is owed the inclusion of the new Caravaggesque current within the Carraccesque neo-16th-century style. Chiaroscuro problems also interested B. Schedone, while Venetian colorism concerned Tiarini, Cavedone and Bonone.

The tradition of Reni persisted in the 18th century with Carlo Cignani; but the 18th century was characterized by the fanciful decorations of the scene painters Bibbiena, and of V. Maria Bigari: perspective backgrounds open the ceilings of the churches through the work of the "quadraturisti" (the Haffner brothers being very well known) and the "figuristi" painters (the greatest of whom was M. A. Franceschini) carry out the decoration; among the most splendid examples are the interiors of the church of the Santa, of the Madonna di Galliera, of S. Paolo. An epigone of that current was Gaetano Gandolfi, who enlivens his own color on the Venetian color of Tiepolo. A wholly different position is offered by Giuseppe M. Crespi, called lo Spagnolo, who sums up the 17th-century experiences of Inovezza in order to renew them with profound pictorial frankness.

In the first half of the 19th century the perspective tradition continued to live with Basoli, Cocchi, Ferri, Solmi and Fancelli, while painters such as Muzzi and Busi reworked the distant premises of the Carracci. The veristic tendency was instead represented by Luigi Serra; toward the end of the century, Samoggia, Casanova and Sezanne attempted to renew romantically medieval and 15th-century motifs in the decoration of the chapels of S. Francesco.

Maria Vittoria Brugnoli

III. BADIA DI S. STEFANO — It is among the oldest Benedictine abbeys. Gregory VII, Paschal II, and Lucius II, in the privileges granted to the bishops of B., as well as the author of the life of St. Petronius, attribute its foundation to the latter. According to some, moreover, it would belong to the Basilians (ca. 440), before the Benedictines. Around 980 it was held by Cluniac monks. In 1167 Frederick I took it under imperial protection. Nicholas V in 1448 granted it in commendam. In the same century (1493), the cardinal commendatory Giuliano della Rovere ceded it to the Celestines, who remained there until the Napoleonic suppression. For a few years now the Olivetans of S. Michele in Bosco have officiated there. At present the papers are in the State archive.

The complex of buildings, which still preserves the name of S. Stefano, is among the most interesting and characteristic. It is composed of four principal churches, of oratories and cloisters, erected from the 5th to the 17th century. Important restorations were carried out there in 1880 and in 1924. Some of the oldest memorials of the Bolognese Church are still preserved there, and since some of the buildings were made to recall the places of the Savior's Passion, it was also called Jerusalem.

Tommaso Leccisotti

IV. SANCTUARY OF THE MADONNA OF ST. LUKE — On the mount called Garda or della Guardia (289 m), near Bologna, in the 12th century there was a hermitage of pious women to whom, according to tradition, the bishop of Bologna, Gerard, would have granted, on 8 May 1160, a panel with the image of the Virgin, coming from Byzantium and attributed to St. Luke. Thus the veneration of the wonder-working effigy, of Byzantine style, would have begun, and it developed considerably. In honor of the Virgin a pious woman, Angelica, said to be of the Bonfanti family, during the pontificate of Celestine III (1187-91), had a church built in honor of St. Mary on a property that she had already offered to St. Peter and the Roman Church, to which she paid an annual census of a pound of incense. It was guarded by some virgins, living first under the rule of the Lateran Canons, then under the Dominican rule, and they remained there until the Napoleonic suppression, when they moved to St. Matthias. The papers of both monasteries are now kept together in the State archive in Bologna.

The cult of the Madonna increased especially through the care of the cardinal, bishop of Bologna, Bl. Niccolò Albergati. During his governance the sacred image was, on the occasion of a public calamity, carried for the first time in solemn procession to the city below (5 July 1433). The image was crowned in 1603 by the archbishop of Bologna, Alfonso Paleotti, and, a second time, in 1857, by Pius IX.

The ancient church, restored several times, was replaced by the present one, on a design by Carlo Francesco Dotti (1723-1763), in the typical dissocial form with transverse arms in a cross and an elliptical dome. In recent years the painter Giuseppe Cassiolo has decorated its dome.

The sanctuary is joined to Bologna by a monumental portico three and a half kilometers long, with 666 arches and 15 chapels (1673-1734). In 1931, for greater convenience of access, the cable car up to the sanctuary was built.

Tommaso Leccisotti

V. ABBEYS OF S. PROCOLO, OF THE SS. NABORE AND FELICE

The abbey of St. Proculus is very ancient. In the 14th century the students from beyond the mountains gathered there, and in the church were the tombs of the four Doctors of the Studium, whom Frederick Barbarossa had summoned to the diet of Roncaglia (1158). In 1436 it was united by Eugene IV to the Congregation of St. Justina, later Cassinese, to which it belonged until the Napoleonic suppression.

The church was rebuilt in the 16th century and remodeled in 1535.

The abbey of Sts. Nabor and Felix, where Gratian lived in the 12th century, was for some time united to that of St. Proculus. In 1432 it already belonged to the Congregation of St. Justina. In 1436 Eugene IV separated it from St. Proculus.

Tommaso Leccisotti

VI. UNIVERSITY

It shares with Paris the primacy among the medieval universal cities. It earned the title of Alma mater studiorum and, on the seals and coins of the city, the motto Bononia docet.

1. The ancient studium

The first traces of the Studium are to be sought in the second half of the 11th century, with the private teaching of Pepo: its date of foundation is set at about 1088, and therefore in 1888 the "eighth centenary from the origins of the Studium" was celebrated. Irnerius (v.), lucerna iuris, was the man of genius who at once gave solid consistency to the teaching entrusted to him, thereby bringing about the decline of Ravenna, in this too. And with his disciples Bulgarus, Martinus, Jacobus and Hugo, he began that glorious school of Glossators which was to give new life to the law of Rome. Meanwhile Gratian (v.) was compiling, in 1151, the Decretum.

According to Odofredus himself, in the 13th century the Studium Generale of Bologna counted no fewer than 10,000 students, come from every part of the world. Unlike that of Paris, which was a corporation of professors (Universitas Magistrorum), the Studium of Bologna was constituted by the corporation of students (Universitas scholarium). And the Universitates were two: that of the Italians, or citramontani, and that of the foreigners, or ultramontani, subdivided into nationes. A document of 1265 enumerates, for the ultramontani, 13 nations: French, Spanish, Provençal, English, Picard, Burgundian, Poitevin, Gascon, Tourainian, Cenomanian, Catalan, Hungarian, Polish, German; but later their number was doubled.

For this reason the government of the Studium was entrusted to two rectors, elected by the students themselves. To the rectors belonged civil jurisdiction, and in certain cases even criminal jurisdiction over the members of the corporation. Frederick Barbarossa, who summoned the doctores of the Bologna Studium to the Diet of Roncaglia (1158) to establish the rights of the Empire, promulgated there the Authentic Habita in favor of student jurists, especially foreigners, on which medieval scholastic legislation was modeled. Thus, once the corporate constitution of the students was recognized, the Studium constituted an autonomous organization, with offices and magistrates independent of the communal authority, almost a commune within another commune.

To the primitive chairs or faculties of the legistae (of civil and canon law) there were added, little by little, those of medicine and arts (which seem already to have existed as a faculty in 1268), while the faculty of Theology was instituted by Pope Innocent VI with the bull Quasi lignum vitae, from Avignon on 21 June 1360 (Bull. Rom., IV, Turin 1859, pp. 517-19); but, for political reasons, it was inaugurated only on 2 June 1364. Erected on the model of the Parisian one, this faculty was directly dependent on the bishop; and it constituted a university of masters and not of students, and these formed part of the university of the artists (Savigny).

With the second half of the 13th century the colleges of doctors also appear, and doctors extraneous to the Studium were members of them as well. Such colleges had their own statutes and, with the privilege of conferring degrees, lasted until the Napoleonic age.

The first statutes of the two universities of jurists, now lost, were composed by the rectors and the students in 1252, who bound themselves by oath to observe them, as is evident from the brief of approval of Innocent IV (12 Jan. 1253). Those of 1317 and 1432 are preserved, as are the statutes of the university of medicine and arts of 1405, with the reforms of 1442, and the statutes of the faculty of Theology (published by Cardinal Ehrle), the most interesting and most complete of all those drawn up by the other theological faculties derived from the Parisian one. The statutes of the college of doctors of civil law (1397, with additions from 1438 to 1499), of the college of canon law (1460 and 1466) and of the college of medicine and arts (1378, 1395, 1410) are also preserved. All these statutes were several times approved by the Popes, for example by Pius IV, in 1563.

The right of inspection and supervision was reserved by Honorius III, in 1219, to the archdeacon, who, as at Paris, took the name of chancellor; for theology, however, supervision belonged to the bishop. A title of glory for the Studium, the various collections of the Decretals (v.) were promulgated with bulls addressed "to the masters and students of the Studium of Bologna."

At first the professors were chosen and paid by the students, but in the 14th century they began to be salaried by the Commune, and in the 16th century their chairs were gathered into a single building, for which, on a design by Antonio Terribilia, the palace of the Archiginnasio was erected in 1562-63. Gregory XV granted them retirement after 40 years of teaching (bull of 11 Aug. 1621), and Benedict XIV reduced the period to 30 years (brief of 18 Sept. 1748).

The corporate constitution persisted for a long time: but then the government of the Studium passed from the corporation to the Commune, and from the Commune to the Papal State, which from the beginning of the 17th century (after 1604) exercised its power through the cardinal legates pro tempore, who thus became perpetual rectors of the university.

Some twenty colleges for poor lay students (ecclesiastics resided at religious houses) had the status of charitable institutions, for example the Gregorian college, instituted by Pope Gregory XI with the bull Res sanctissima (Avignon 18 Dec. 1372) with an ample regulation (Bull. Rom., IV, Turin 1859, pp. 542-60), and the Montalto college, founded by Sixtus V in 1586 for 50 young men of the Marca.

2. The modern University

With the growth of the demands of culture, from the 15th century onward the old chairs were subdivided and new ones were instituted. In 1711 Luigi F. Marsili erected the Institute of Sciences, which later merged with the Academy of painters, sculptors and artists, and at the beginning of the 19th century was incorporated into the University.

With the French invasion the Studium underwent a series of transformations down to the present national university.

3. Its importance for European culture

Because of its Studium Bologna bore the title of learned, of seat and mother of the laws; it therefore had struck on its coins the proud words: Petrus relique pater - legum Bononia mater. "We jurists must never be so ungrateful as to forget that the jurisprudence of our own day is the daughter of the Studium of Bologna" (Savigny, p. 547).

Its organization served as a model for almost all the other medieval universities — French, Spanish, German, Polish, Hungarian, Swedish — whose rise never diminished its great importance. Popes and emperors vied in endowing it with privileges, exemptions and immunities. Its masters acquired worldwide renown; among its students are counted not a few saints.

Its vicissitudes are narrated by Albano Sorbelli and Luigi Simeoni (Storia dell'Università di B., 2 vols., Bologna 1940-47) and its contribution to the history of culture and of universal civilization by Carlo Calcaterra (Alma Mater Studiorum, Bologna 1948). - See PL. CVI-CVII.

Igino Cecchetti