BENEDICT XIV, Pope. - Prospero Lambertini, born in Bologna on 31 March 1675 to Marcello and Lucrezia Bulgarini; educated with the Somaschi, then in Rome, he devoted himself to ecclesiastical studies and particularly to canon and civil law. A consistorial advocate (1701), promoter of the Faith (1708) at the Congregation of Rites, canon of St. Peter's (1712), then consultor of the Holy Office, of the Rites, of the Council, and from 1722 canonist of the Penitentiary, he made himself practiced in the workings of the various dicasteries. Appointed in 1725 titular bishop of Theodosia, in 1727 archbishop of Ancona, he was created cardinal in pectore on 9 Dec. 1726, and published on 30 Apr. 1728. He received the archiepiscopal see of his Bologna in 1731 and held it even as pope, until he gave it a successor in Card. Malvezzi.
In the long conclave that followed the death of Clement XII (6 Feb. 1740) Lambertini at first remained in the shadows, but on 16 Aug. he was suddenly designated and the next day proclaimed pope under the name of B. XIV. Of a good-natured and affable character, B. passed into history as a witty man, of that courteous and distinguished manner that is found in him not only in conversation but also in the private correspondence that he kept alive even as pontiff with scholars and with friends, mostly scholars themselves. In a century in which erudition, even on ecclesiastical subjects, was flourishing, he knew how to be a well-informed and valuable scholar and did not shrink from demonstrating it in his writings, and with enlightened judgment he overcame every obscurantist traditionalism.
He was also a capable sovereign. In difficult times he took severe measures for the restoration of the treasury, balancing expenses, resorting to prudent taxation and succeeding in safeguarding the neutrality of the Holy See. Many, and some excellent, were also the provisions of his government. Rome received, among other things, a new urban circumscription, while through enlightened patronage the four Academies were born there — of the Councils, of Ecclesiastical History, of Liturgy and of Roman Antiquities — and the Academy of the Lincei was also reformed into the "Nuovi Lincei," directing it toward naturalistic research. He distinguished his merits toward the Bolognese Archiginnasio, in particular with the institution of a chair and an anatomical museum, and with other provisions that favored its scientific activity. His greatest cares, however, were for ecclesiastical reform both in the clergy and in the people, and he left a record of it in legislative innovations and in his solicitude that the ancient laws be observed. He favored missions for the people throughout Italy, aided by the oratory of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, and by the jubilee celebrations of 1750. He renewed the condemnations against Freemasonry on the basis of what Clement XII had already done, and against the writings of the enemies of Christianity that were by then spreading more every day. He also opposed Jansenism.
Not a few difficulties were caused to B. by international discords and especially by the conflict over the imperial crown, which arose after the death of Charles VI (1740), between Maria Theresa his daughter, who championed the candidacy of her husband Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany, and Charles Albert of Bavaria, supported by France and Prussia. The struggle unleashed in 1742 for the election and coronation of the latter spread also into Italy and the Papal State itself was, though neutral, involved in it, while Bologna was the defenseless prey of Austrian, Spanish and Sardinian militias. The death of Charles of Bavaria (1745) and the election of the Lorrainer Francis I brought general peace with the treaty of Aachen (1748); however B. found himself compelled to protest over the disregarded rights of the Holy See over Parma and Piacenza.
Difficult too were the negotiations for the agreements or concordats with the courts of Turin, Madrid and Naples. Regarding Turin, Card. Lambertini had largely contributed to healing the tension that had remained alive between 1731 and 1735. As pope, thanks to direct epistolary correspondence with Charles Emmanuel III and with the Marquis d'Ormea, he was able in 1741 to conclude the pacts concerning the apostolic vicariate over the papal territories ceded in fief to the monarchy and concerning ecclesiastical benefices. More arduous was the affair of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and immunity, happily concluded in 1742 also through the merit of the pontifical commissioner Ludovico Merlini; and proof of the improved relations is the bull of 1744 in favor of the Order of Sts. Maurice and Lazarus, and the solution of the problem concerning the right of spoglio and the pensions of benefices.
In 1753 there was also closed the long-standing question aroused in Spain by the discontent over the concordat concluded with Philip V in 1737. After various vicissitudes, the sovereign was recognized as having universal patronage over all dioceses and benefices, reserving the collation of only fifty-two to the Holy See and of some others to the bishops, and respecting particular patronages. The compensation granted by Spain did not calm the well-founded apprehensions of the Curia, rightly concerned that such a precedent might favor analogous claims on the part of other governments.
With Naples too, from 1741 onward, a concordat was brought to port to settle old controversies resurging despite the feudal investiture granted to the new king Charles of Bourbon. A mixed tribunal was instituted to decide on disputed cases of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the Pontiff made broad concessions regarding immunity and the right of asylum, but without finding, especially through the work of Tanucci, the response that he hoped for.
In a time of obstinate and universal claim by the Catholic States to meddle in ecclesiastical affairs, B.'s constant aim was to avoid, by conciliatory procedures, clamorous diplomatic ruptures, saving the Church from extreme damages deriving from a deluge of civil laws and decrees not conforming to canon law. Thus between Austria and Venice he resolved the intricate and long-standing dispute over the patriarchate of Aquileia, which was divided by a bull of 1751 into the two archbishoprics of Udine, for the Venetian domain, and of Gorizia, for the Austrian one. He maintained good relations with Frederick II of Prussia, for the first time officially recognized by the Holy See as king, with particular reference to the Catholic affairs of Silesia, which he had conquered. Concerns were not lacking in France because of the intrigues and machinations of the Jansenists, of the arbitrariness of the Parliament, and of the abuses of Louis XV. Things went better in Portugal, whose sovereign was granted the title of "most faithful king," although, shortly before dying, B. had, through the schemes of Pombal, to appoint Card. Saldanha visitor and reformer of the Jesuits of that nation.
In the missionary field B. sought to resolve in some way the age-old controversies over the Chinese and Malabar rites, prohibiting by the bull Ex quo singulari of 1742 certain honors to ancestors and to Confucius practiced in China, and by the other, Omnium sollicitudinum of 1744, reproving the tolerance of certain customs and superstitions in India; finally imposing on missionaries the oath not to permit such rites.
An accusation was made against B. for a condescension that seemed excessive with regard to the governments of his time, and for that brief correspondence with Voltaire, who with great impudence dedicated his "Mahomet" to him; but undeniable was the uprightness of his intentions to avoid greater damages to the Church on the part of the absolutism of the princes and philosophers of the time. The great Pontiff died on 3 May 1758 and was buried in the Vatican basilica, where a monument erected on a design by Pietro Bracci commemorates him.
Bibliography6 works
BENEDICT XIV AS CANONIST
Endowed with outstanding intellect, combined with constant application to study throughout his long life, favored by the circumstances of his ecclesiastical career, which led him through many important curial offices, from that of consistorial advocate up to the supreme pontificate, B. XIV remains one of the greatest canonists and legislators of the Church. What distinguishes all his numerous works is the clear diction, free of all bombast, and above all the method: he does not base himself on a priori constructions or on purely theoretical considerations, but on deep and extensive historical investigation, which allows him to place the various problems in their true light and to resolve them in conformity with the tradition and practice of the Church. Schulte (v. bibliography) does not hesitate to call B. the true founder of modern historical-juridical science, by which he anticipated his times.
His works were in part written in Italian, translated then translated into Latin, especially by Azevedo, who made the first collection of them in 12 vols. (Rome 1747-51). One of the most complete editions is that of Prato 1839-47 in 17 vols. (18 tomes). Almost all the works have a bearing on law, but the most important are those concerning canonization, the diocesan synod, and the bullarium.
1. De servorum Dei beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione, Op. om., vols. I-VII, Prato 1839-46. Also: Bologna 1734-38, Padua 1743, Rome 1747, Venice 1767, Naples 1773, Rome 1783. The work properly so called consists of four books: Book I contains the controversiae praeliminares and offers almost a historical and practical survey of the process of beatification and canonization; Book II treats of the process of beatification, beginning from the ordinary process up to its evaluation in the Roman Curia, all from the historical-juridical aspect; in Book III he deals with the questions to be treated in the process: the witnesses, martyrdom, the virtuous life (in general and for individual states), the special graces (gratis datae); Book IV has two parts: in the first the miracles are treated (with discussion of many concrete cases), in the second liturgical questions are set forth: concessions of the Divine Office and of the Mass, of inscription in the Roman Martyrology, of the choice of patron saints.
This work, based on extensive studies and on the experience acquired in the office of Promoter of the Faith (1708-28), has remained unsurpassed and classic for the Roman Curia. As for written historical testimonies, however, he admits them only as subsidiary proofs, showing himself in this to be a formalist. The institution of the historical section in the Congregation of Rites (1930) has opportunely remedied this.
2. Institutiones ecclesiasticae (in Italian, ed. Bologna 1731, 1735; Venice 1740; Rome 1742; in Latin, trans. by Ildefonso di s. Carlo of the Pious Schools, Rome 1747 and 1750; Ingolstadt 1751; Bassano 1760; Venice 1765). It is not a systematic work, but consists of instructions, edicts, pastoral letters, which treat in 107 articles of very diverse subjects, published by B. when he was archbishop of Bologna. They concern mostly the pastoral life, but always with profound historical-juridical learning.
3. De Synodo Diocesano. The first edition, Rome 1748, made by Azevedo, is divided into 8 books; the work was then enlarged by the author and divided into 13 books, Rome 1755; Ferrara 1756, 1760; Padua 1756; Parma 1764; Venice 1775, 1792; Mainz 1842. He elaborated this work when he was archbishop of Bologna, but perfected it later, already as pope. It contains all the matters that can be the object of a diocesan synod, with such abundance that hardly anything that can fall within episcopal administration is missing from it. For its calm and objective exposition the work was judged a masterpiece, certainly the best that exists on the subject. The author does not even disdain to cite and discuss Protestant and Gallican authors.
4. Thesaurus revolutionum S. Congregationis Concilii, I-III, Urbino 1739; IV, Rome 1740. Being secretary of the Council from 1718 to 1728, he introduced the practice of adding to the Folia causarum distributed before the sessions the earlier decisions in similar cases and the opinions of the best canonists. These sheets were then gathered together by himself and published together with the resolutions of the Council. The collection was subsequently continued down to the whole of the year 1908, and comprises 167 vols., partly reprinted at Rome 1843 ff. This innovation, making known Roman practice and jurisprudence, had, according to Schulte, a great influence on canonistic doctrine and on the judgments of ecclesiastical tribunals throughout the world.
5. Quæstiones canonicae et morales. It is substantially identical with the first 4 vols. of the Thesaurus; the arrangement, however, is sometimes modified and there is also some omission of minor matters.
6. Casus conscientiae de mandato Prosp. Lambertini, Archiepiscopi Bononensis propositi et resoluti, Ferrara 1764; Augsburg 1766 f.; Liège 1853-59.
7. Bullarium Benedicti XIV (edd. Rome 1746-54, 1754-1758, 1760-62; Venice 1768). In his constitutions B. speaks as a legislator without disowning his habits as a scholar, so that certain bulls and encyclicals have a personal note and also contain theoretical considerations, take account of the doctrine of authors and of the decisions of the Roman Congregations. The matters on which B. legislated are very diverse, and cannot be specified here. It is recalled only that with the constitution Dei miseratione of 3 Nov. 1741, he instituted for matrimonial cases, under penalty of nullity, the defensor vinculi, whose duties he specifies; with the constitution Vix pervenit of 1 Nov. 1745, he set out detailed principles on the matter of interest in the loan; for the rest cf. P. Gasparri, Codicis Iuris Canonici Fontes, I, Rome 1923, pp. 662-953; II, ibid. 1924, pp. 1-576, where are reproduced the constitutions that served to compile the CIC, and which in some editions of it are indicated in notes. They are very numerous, much more so than those of any other pontiff.
Also of interest for canon law, among the other works of B. XIV, are: De sacrosancto Missae sacrificio, and De festis Domini nostri Iesu Christi et Beatae Mariae Virginis, of almost exclusively liturgical content.
Bibliography3 works
Livario Oliger