**PORTUGAL – St. Ursula’s Torch. Detail of the painting by the Master of St. Aura. Lisbon, Museum.**
The combative depth of thought is reflected in the work, among others, of António Sérgio (b. 1883). Literary research and criticism have been modernized, embracing in the erudite tradition systems of sobriety and concerns for objectivity: the principal credit for this goes to the aforementioned F. de Figueiredo (*A história literária como ciência*, 1912; *História literária de Portugal*, 1944), while philology, in the strict sense of the word, has also become cautious and discerning, as seen in the work of Manuel Rodrigues Lapa (b. 1897), or is accompanied by broad cultural information, as in Hernán Cidade (b. 1887), or by a pleasant evocation of settings and figures, as in Vitorino Nemésio (b. 1901); substantial ideas have also been brought to essays by many critics and scholars interested in contemporary national and foreign literature, such as João Gaspar Simões (b. 1903).
BIBL. F. Denis, *Résumé de l'hôt. littér. du Portugal*, etc., Paris, 1826; C. Michaelis de Vasconcellos, *Gesch. der portugies. ch. Liter.*, Strasbourg 1894; T. Braga, *Hist. de literatura portu- ge*, 6 vols., Porto 1908-16; E. Carre Aldao, *Literat. Gallega* (with extensive bibliography), 2nd ed., Barcelona 1911; A. F. G. Bell, *Portuguese Literat.*, Oxford 1922; F. de Figueiredo, *Hist. de la literatura portuguesa*, Barcelona 1927; A. Forjaz de Sampaio, *Hist. da literatura portuguesa ilustrada* (written by various authors), 4 vols., Lisbon 1929-32 (first three), 4th ed., M. dos Remédios, *Hist. literária portuguesa desde as origens até à actualidade*, 16th ed., Coimbra 1930; G. Le Gentil, *La littérature portugaise*, Paris 1935, 2nd ed., Lisbon 1936; F. de Figueiredo, *Hist. liter. de Portugal* (12th-20th centuries), Coimbra 1944; O. Lopes and J. Martins, *Breve hist. da literatura portuguesa*, Lisbon 1945; A. Ribeiro da Cunha, *Lingua e a literatura portuguesa. Historia e crítica*, Braga 1948. – In Italy: G. C. Rossi, *L'Arcadia e il romanticismo in P.*, Florence 1941; id., *Storia della letteratura portoghese*, 1915; for a brief overview of relations between Portuguese and Italian literature in general, see also the same author’s *Breve hist. da literatura ital.*, Lisbon 1946. Giuseppe Carlo Rossi
**A. Art. – Ruins of Roman constructions, among which the remains of the temple of Évora are the most significant, the Visigothic church of Balsemão (Lamego) from the 8th century, the S. Frutuoso of Braga with its distinctly Byzantine character, the Mozarabic church of Lourosa (10th century), the S. Amaro of Beja, and a few other more or less preserved buildings, all bear witness to artistic activity in Portugal in the pre-Romanesque era. It was then that artistic expressions developed from north to south, following the march of the “Reconquista,” leaving behind notable monuments in the cathedrals of Braga, Porto, Lamego, Coimbra, and Lisbon, which in varying degrees reflect styles derived from southern France. The same can be said of the subsequent forms of Gothic architecture, of which the church of the Cistercian monastery of Alcobaça is the purest example.**
In Portugal, however, these Gothic forms often blend with earlier Romanesque ones, creating complexes of undeniable beauty, such as S. João de Alporão (Santarém). But by the late 1300s, they take on a new aspect in the great church of Santa Maria da Vitória at Aljubarrota, better known as Batalha, a work by the architects Afonso Domingues (1388–1402), Huguet (1402–138), and the later Mateus Fernandes. The latter, along with his sons Pedro and Filipe Henriques, Diogo and Francisco de Arruda, Boytac, and Marcos Pires, ranks among the greatest architects active during the reign of Manuel I. It was they who developed the style now known as “Manueline,” so called because it flourished during that monarch’s reign, characterized above all by an intense and lavish naturalistic decoration, sometimes echoing Asian themes, which imbued architectural forms with a sense of opulence bordering on the Baroque. Essential monuments of this style include, alongside parts of Batalha, the Convent of Christ and the Templar Sanctuary of Tomar, the Belém Tower in Lisbon, as well as a great number of portals and windows, some of which date to after Manuel’s reign, when the Manueline style was also influenced by the Spanish Plateresque of Diego and João de Castilho.
The principal centers for the spread of Renaissance forms in the 16th century were Tomar, Coimbra, and Évora. In Tomar, these forms appear quite pure in the small church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição, for which the name of Sansovino has been invoked for comparative purposes, and in the buildings with Serlian and Palladian influences by Diogo de Torralva, particularly the Cloister of the Filipinos. In Évora and Coimbra, especially through the work of Italianizing and French-influenced sculptors, the most prominent of whom was Nicolas Chanterene. Later, in the final quarter of the century, the Italian Filippo Terzi, who arrived in Portugal in 1576 as a military architect but soon became active in ecclesiastical and civil architecture, built São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon, the royal palace of that city, completed the Cloister of the Filipinos in Tomar, constructed the Episcopal Palace of Coimbra, and likely the great church of Serra do Pilar in Porto. These works set new standards for local masters, who throughout the 17th century did not abandon his straightforward and solemn manner of building.
During the Baroque period, Portuguese architecture can be divided into two currents: one, particularly vibrant in Braga, with a nearly folksy character, distinguished by elegant decoration that flourishes opulently on facades and interiors against the white backdrop of walls, with notable examples including the churches of Falperra and Congregados; the other, of a more courtly tone, linked to Italian forms—first those of Guarino Guarini, who was also active in Lisbon, and later in the 18th century those of Federico Ludovico, a German Italianized in style, author of the grand church and convent of Mafra, the Bibbiena family active in Lisbon, and finally Nicolò Nasoni or Nazzoni, a Sienese who lived in Oporto from 1732 to 1773 and created, among other works, the true masterpiece that is the church and tower of the Clerigos.
The history of sculpture in Portugal does not differ greatly from that of architecture and reflects the same influences. In the tombs of the 13th and 14th centuries found in the churches of Évora, Braga, Lisbon, and Alcobaça, French sculpture predominates; similarly, throughout the 15th century, until the late 1400s and early 1500s, Renaissance forms reached Portugal both through the work of French and Spanish sculptors, some of whom were Italianized, and through direct Italian contributions, among which Sansovino’s must always be remembered. Vasari claims that he spent a long time in Portugal, and in the region—
Certain sculptures can be identified that are certainly influenced by his style. Among the other most important sculptors active in the 16th century is Nicola Chanterène (active between 1517 and 1550), trained in Italy, who worked especially in Coimbra, Évora, Sintra and Belém; and João de Ruão (d. 1580), to whom numerous works are attributed and who exerted a strong influence on local artists. During the Baroque period, sculpture developed especially in the lavish decorations that sometimes covered the simple architectural forms, until in the first half of the century, under the reign of John V, Alessandro Giusti arrived in Mafra, where many marbles ordered from Rome by the Ludovisi were brought. Giusti worked in Mafra between 1753 and 1770, also serving as a master of sculpture for many Portuguese.
To the most original activities of these artists we owe not only many devotional images in churches, but also an intense production of small Nativity figures.
As for the history of painting in Portugal, aside from the activity of Italian masters who immigrated to the region or Portuguese artists in Italy (Álvaro Pirez of Évora), it begins with the emergence of Gonçalves (v.), active between 1450 and 1470, whose connections with Flemish painting and the courtly art of southern France are evident, as well as with contemporary Spanish painting. Around the truly monumental figure of this painter and his masterpiece, the polyptych of St. Vincent, scholars have grouped minor works and figures of artists active at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, without, however, thus far being able to outline the features of an individual history of Portuguese painting. Worth mentioning, in any case, are the Master of Sardoal, Francisco Henriques, Frei Carlos (active especially in Évora), while those belonging to the so-called school of Viseu and who were active during the Manueline period include Vasco Fernandes, the Master of the Retable of the Cathedral of Viseu, and Gaspar Vaz. At that time, in Lisbon, the workshop of Jorge Afonso (Cristóvão de Figueiredo) was operating, to whom various paintings of notable value are attributed, as well as Garcia Fernandes and Gregório Lopes, court painter until 1550.
Then, during the 17th century, Portuguese painting, whose styles merged with those of Spain, still boasts an artist of considerable interest, Domingos Vieira; while in the 18th century, influences and works from Italy and France arrived in Portugal, contributing to the formation of that Francisco Vieira de Matos, better known as Vieira Lusitano (1690–1783), who was also a pupil in Rome of Luti and Trevisani, as well as of Francisco Vieira Portuense (1765–1805) and Domingos António de Sequeira (1768–1837), the latter two painters of considerable interest also for the Romantic tendencies in their art.
VII. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Instruction is provided in government schools and private schools. The latter are subject to the control of the Ministry of Education and regulated by Law No. 2033 of 27 June 1949. Article 2 of this law stipulates that the government does not oversee teaching in ecclesiastical seminaries or religious instruction, as these are governed by the provisions of Article 20 of the Concordat with the Holy See of 7 May 1940. Physical education, singing, and all aspects of female education are supervised by the Inspectorate of Private Education and the following associations: Portuguese Youth, Portuguese Female Youth, the OMEN Mothers’ Association, and School Visitors. Article 3 of Law 2033 further stipulates that the Inspectorate must monitor how female students are educated, requiring that their education be oriented toward preserving the virtues of womanhood and the domestic hearth. To this end, School Visitors are permitted to supervise and guide the educational efforts even within the students’ own families.The entire private and government school system includes kindergartens for children aged 3 to 6, elementary schools for ages 7 to 11, secondary schools, and the following universities: Coimbra, founded in 1291; Porto, founded in 1762; and Lisbon, founded in 1911. After completing elementary school, students may choose from the following types of schools: two-year complementary primary education, four-year elementary commercial education, four-year elementary technical education, four-year agricultural school, five-year central or national lycées. Upon completing studies in one of these types of schools, students may proceed to secondary commercial education, secondary technical education, humanities (Letras), science (Ciência), or primary teacher training (Magistério primário). Upon obtaining a diploma, students may progress from humanities to university, from science to the higher technical institute, from primary teacher training to the higher normal school, from secondary commercial education to the Institute of Economic and Financial Sciences, and from secondary technical education to the technical institute. Catholic clerical education is provided in 9 minor seminaries, 5 major seminaries, and 10 full seminaries; at the Higher Colonial School in Lisbon, Catholic missiology has been taught since 30 September 1946, pursuant to Law 35,885. Vedi tav. CXXII.