Portugal

PORTUGAL. - I. GEOGRAPHY. - Portuguese territory represents the western edge of the Iberian plateau, which slopes down to the coast with plains and terraces, interspersed, in the N. (Minho), in the center (Beira) and in the S. (Algarve), by the last offshoots of the Spanish mountains.

The temperate-oceanic climate is far more humid than in the rest of the peninsula, except in the extreme southern regions. Of the State's 91.7 thousand sq km, 3.1 belong to the Azores and Madeira, which form 4 of the 15 provinces into which the territory of P. is divided. The population (8.5 million inhabitants, 90 per sq km), of coolatine origin, is quite homogeneous (only 0.4% of foreign speakers) and almost entirely (94%) Catholic. The density of settlement decreases, as a rule, from the sea toward the interior and from N. to S.

P. is an essentially agricultural country; nevertheless, arable land covers less than 1/3 of the territorial surface, as against 1/5 of woodland and 2/5 of unproductive land. Cereals, which give very low unit yields, are not enough for domestic consumption. The economically most important crop is the vine, which ensures a modest but prized product, largely destined for export (England, Brazil). The olive also gives a good harvest, and the income from fruit-growing is considerable. From the woods come cork (half of world production), essences and resins. The importance of livestock raising is slight (sheep and goats; cattle are numerous in the N.); much greater is that of fishing (tuna and sardines). Mineral resources are varied (copper, tin, lead, silver, manganese, nickel, gold, chromite, etc.), but coal is scarce and only pyrites and tungsten are exploited to a notable extent. Industry, on the whole, is modest, localized in the main cities.

The capital of the State is Lisbon (710 thousand inhabitants), with a very busy port (it is on the Tagus); Oporto (265 thousand inhabitants) is the outlet of northern P. (Douro).

P. is a unitary republic with a corporative structure. Alongside the elective National Assembly, with limited suffrage, operates the Corporative Chamber, composed of representatives of economic interests, which has legislative functions. The president, elected by direct suffrage, holds office for 7 years.

São Tomé and Príncipe, volcanic islands in the Gulf of Guinea, discovered by the Portuguese in 1471, form a Portuguese colony, governed by a governor. Fertility of the soil and abundance of rainfall determine on the two islands the development of an exuberant vegetation (tropical forests); the plantations introduced there by the colonists allow an exceptional production of cocoa, coffee, oil palm, peanuts, sugar cane and cotton, largely exported. The population (57 thousand inhabitants) consists for the most part of Blacks, a few mulattoes and about a thousand whites. Capital São Tomé (8 thousand inhabitants), on the island of the same name, residence of the governor.

Giuseppe Caraci

II. CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY

1. Middle Ages, civil history

The history of the western Iberian territory, up to the 11th century, is not distinct from the history of Spain. However, antecedent historical-political facts and geographical and anthropological conditions constitute the precondition for the autonomy of that strip of the Peninsula. But before Ferdinand the Great and Alfonso VI, the region of present-day Portugal shares in the political vicissitudes of the entire Iberian Peninsula (v. SPAIN).

Among the foreign knights who came to Spain to aid the Christian kings, Raymond, son of William count of Burgundy, who later married Urraca, legitimate daughter of Alfonso VI of Castile, and his cousin Henry, son of the Burgundian duke Henry, and later husband of Teresa, illegitimate daughter of the same Alfonso VI, had given proof of great valor. Their marriages gave to the first the government of Galicia as far as the Tagus, and to the second that of the county of Portugal, under the dependence of his cousin. The boundaries of the County, which took its name of Portucalense from the ancient Cale, situated near the estuary of the Douro, were not well defined. With the conquest of Coimbra, the county had a broader territory. But already in 1097 Henry won its independence from his cousin, remaining under the direct dependence of the King of León. When he died at Astorga (1112 or 1114) the Muslims became the stronger, with the reconquest of Sintra, Lisbon and Santarém. The County passed to Henry's wife, Teresa, whose action always tended toward the conquest of autonomy, not neglecting to extend considerably the boundaries of her domain. But her son Alfonso Henriques, seeing at a certain moment a threat to his own power in the work carried out by his mother, defeated her in the battle of S. Mamede (1128) and then in 1139, having defeated the Muslims at Ourique, proclaimed himself «Alfonso Portucalense rex». By the Treaty of Zamora of 1143 this title was recognized for him by Alfonso VII; the legate of the Pope, card. Guido di Vico, sanctioned with his presence the juridical and political validity of this act. The first Portuguese King thus placed himself under the protection of the Church. Pope Lucius II responds to Alfonso, still calling him simply "dux"; but in 1179 Alexander III finally recognizes Alfonso Henriques as king, promising him and his descendants his help.

Alfonso Henriques is therefore the creator of independent P.; and behold him in 1147 conquering Santarem and, with the help of Nordic crusaders, Lisbon. In 1158 Sintra, Aomada and Alcacer do Sal surrender to him. Evora, lost, is reconquered in 1165. Then Beja, Serpa, Caceres and other cities of military and strategic importance are occupied. After his death (1185) his son Sancho I continues his father's conquests, but devoting himself above all to the problems of the country's internal politics. In 1211 he is succeeded by his son Alfonso II, who begins an authoritarian policy and promotes the Confirmoções and the Inquirições, which prove to be of high national interest. As regards the Cortes of the Kingdom, the first historically attested are those held at Coimbra in 1211, with the participation of the clergy and the nobility. With the help of the bishop of Lisbon, D. Soeiro, King Alfonso II takes Alcacer from the Muslims and effectively aids Alfonso VIII of Castile in the great Christian victory of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). His successor, Sancho II, devotes himself heroically to the struggles against the Arabs. He conquers Elvas in 1226; he loses it, but reoccupies it in 1229. These wars foster internal conflicts, disorders and revolts. The nobility and the clergy accuse the King before the Pontiff, and Innocent IV, at the Council of Lyon (1245), releases his subjects from obedience, and the King's younger brother, Alfonso count of Boulogne, assumes the regency. The first important date of his reign is that of 1254, when the Cortes assemble at Leiria, in which representatives of the people participate for the first time. Alfonso III completes the total conquest of the Algarve, bringing P. to its present borders. In 1267 the King of Castile recognizes these conquests. The Boulognese, such being the name given to the King because of his marriage to Matilde, countess of Boulogne, thus realized the dream of all his predecessors and was able to provide for the social organization of the Kingdom, granting valid protection to the municipalities and to the third social class, the people, from then on always heard in the Cortes. The new Inquirições, accompanied by other measures of an administrative and economic nature, strike at multiple interests, the cause of struggles with many members of the high clergy, while the municipalities always support the King.

When prince Denis assumed, in 1279, the government of the country, P. had achieved territorial unity and economic and administrative stability. He was able to found the Order of Christ, in replacement of the abolished Order of the Templars, to devote himself to the peopling and reclamation of the land (hence his title of Lavrador), to increase commerce and the navy; he summoned the Genoese admiral Manuel Pessagna for nautical and maritime training. An illustrious poet, Denis founded in 1290 the University of Lisbon, transferred in 1308 to Coimbra. His marriage to Isabella of Aragon, proclaimed a saint by the Church, gave him enormous prestige among the people, because the most virtuous woman lavished herself in works of charity and good.

But the prosperity of the Kingdom is put to the test by the resurgent Arab danger; in 1340, the combined forces of Alfonso XI of Castile and of Alfonso IV, son of Denis, win the great battle of the Salado. From the time of Alfonso IV comes the sad episode of Ines de Castro, which Camões immortalized in the Lusíads, in the form of the great love with which prince Peter loved her. He will be the King "dispenser of justice" par excellence. The brief years of his reign were of perfect administrative stability and great serenity for the nation. Ferdinand is the last King of this first epoch of Portuguese history. His defects, his weakness and his inconstancy (he was called the Inconstant) brought upon P. invasions, wars, struggles with the Castilians. On 16 June 1373 he signed the celebrated alliance with Edward III of England, still valid today. He knew, however, how to provide for agriculture, with the law of the Sesmarias (1375) and to develop the merchant and military navy. Having died without descendants, the threat of Castile arises and the first great crisis of national autonomy.

For ecclesiastical history, from the Portuguese point of view only Braga and Merida are of interest, and especially the former. Already in the 3rd century the diocese of Braga was flourishing and from this era the bishop Paternus is known. In the 4th century, at Evora, where pagan temples still existed, Christianity flourishes with the bishop Quincianus, and likewise at Lisbon with Potamius. The invasion of the barbarians, between the 5th and 8th centuries, marks a dangerous crisis for Iberian Christianity, and especially in the province of which Braga is the metropolis. The conversion of the Suevi is a notable fact. Around the middle of the 6th century St. Martin of Dumio, or of Braga, is elevated to the episcopal dignity, and two or three years later the first Council of Braga takes place, followed by a second around 572, of which St. Martin, by then metropolitan, was the greatest animator. Until the conversion of the Visigoths, under Reccared, and then also under Arab rule, the majority of Christians maintained their faith and only some contaminations of doctrine and customs occurred, the logical consequence of contact with Jews and Muslims. The Church, however, lived very bitter hours, because the problem of ecclesiastical organization, under the Arab Empire, offered ever greater difficulties each day. The Christian reconquest marked a magnificent recovery in all fields, from the religious, monastic and apostolic. It can be stated with certainty that with the beginnings of the Christian reconquest a new life begins in Lusitania, in all the dioceses, at Braga, Porto, Lamego, Beja, Evora, Lisbon, Coimbra, etc. The conquests of Alfonso Henriques took place with the help of the Crusaders, especially the Templars; the Crusades were excellent occasions to strike the Muslim power in its European stronghold and P. benefited from them, having reconquered Silves during the third Crusade, through the work of Sancho I, and Alcacer in 1217, during the fifth Crusade. This means that P. was rebuilt, stone by stone, with the collaboration of the defenders of Christianity.

The struggles of the successors of Alfonso Henriques with the clergy were simple episodes more of discipline and interest than of a religious character, since the Portuguese leaders have always maintained that fidelity sworn by the first king to the Church of Rome. At the time of Denis, pope Nicholas IV with the bull Cum olim, of 7 March 1289, gives his "placet" to the Concordat of 40 articles, by which the rights of the king are defined without prejudice to the Church and the clergy. The same royal beneplacitum, whose first mention goes back to 1361, cannot, nor should be considered harmful to ecclesiastical rights. The monastic Orders constitute, in medieval Portugal, were likewise centers of civil, cultural and political progress. The Cistercian Order, for example, and then the Franciscan and Dominican Orders, and others, worked for the spread and defense of culture, encouraged the peopling of the territory and its very administration. As regards the military Orders, their contribution, as has been said, was fundamental for the conquest of the territory. The Order of Christ, founded by Denis and juridically created by Pope John XXII with the bull Ad ea ex quibus of 15 March 1313, in replacement of the now suppressed Order of the Templars, was, from the Portuguese point of view, a truly providential fact, because the greatest contribution to the work of the discoveries came precisely from the Order of Christ. The famous Pope John XXI, Pedro Julião, author of many fundamental works, such as the Thesaurus Pauperum, was born in Lisbon between 1210 and 1220.

2. Modern age

a) Civil history. - King Fernando's legitimate heir is Beatrice, wife of the King of Castile. The King's widow, Leonor Teles, assumes the regency and then has Beatrice proclaimed queen.

This solution is unpopular and a conspiracy is organized in which the future Constable of the Kingdom, Nuno Alvares, today a blessed of the Church, also takes part. The Master of the military Order of Aviz, John, son of Peter and father of Fernando, gathers the consent and sympathies of the people, and is proclaimed king by the Cortes of Coimbra in March 1385, after the dialectical defense made by João das Regras. The forces of Castile, which had invaded the Kingdom, are destroyed in the same year near Aljubarrota; other battles are won by the Portuguese, led by the blessed Nuno Alvares. The crisis is overcome. From the King's marriage to Philippa of Lancaster was born the so-called "illustrious generation," which played an important part in the discoveries: Duarte, erudite and cultured, Peter, humanist and traveler, Henry, called the Navigator for the great impulse he gave to the discoveries, with the founding of the nautical school of Sagres. On 25 July 1415 the expedition set out, led by the King and by the "high princes," as Camões defined them, for the conquest of Ceuta. It was the first great blow struck against Muslim power; in the Muslim temple of Ceuta, made a Christian temple, the three princes Duarte, Peter and Henry are armed knights. The reign of Duarte sees the disaster of Tangier and the infante Ferdinand in captivity, voluntarily sacrificing himself so that Ceuta might be kept Christian. From 1438 Peter is appointed regent, until Alfonso V is of an age to assume the crown. During his regency the African policy continues with the conquest of Alcácer, Seguer, Arzila and Tangier, in 1471.

The Atlantic policy was a constitutional necessity for the development of the Portuguese nation, which, closed to the east by Spain, had no way out but toward the sea. The scientific and methodical character of the Portuguese discoveries is demonstrated not only by the infante's nautical school, but also by the works of geographers, cartographers and scientists in general, Portuguese, Jewish and later Italian. Gil Eanes, according to the testimony of the historian Gomes de Azurara, reaches the Canaries around 1433. The African coast as far as Cape Bon was known to the Portuguese since 1415. In 1434 the same Gil Eanes reaches as far as Cape Bojador, according to Azurara. In the same year the same navigator, with Alfonso Gonsalves Baldaia, reaches Angra dos Ruivos; in 1435 and in 1436 they reach Angra dos Cavaleiros and Porto da Gale, in the Rio de Oro. From 1440 to 1460, the year of the death of the Infante Henry, Portugal revealed to the world the entire African coast as far as the 8th degree of northern latitude. In 1485 Diogo Cão reached as far as the Congo and arrived at Cape Negro. At this moment, John II reigned in Portugal, and Bartolomeu Dias, having set out from Lisbon in 1487, arrived the following year at the cape he named Tormentoso, a name that the King wished to change to that of Cape of Good Hope, that is, the hope of reaching India by way of the African circumnavigation.

In 1487 Pêro da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva set out for the lands of Prester John, Ethiopia, demonstrating the possibility of reaching India; while he was preparing the new expedition, King John died and his successor, Manuel I, entrusted the expedition to Vasco da Gama who, having set out from Lisbon on 8 July 1497, arrived at Calcutta on 17 May of the following year. In 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil. In 1494, in the face of the fact of the Spanish discoveries, the Treaty of Tordesillas had been concluded between the two powers of the Peninsula, according to which there were to belong to Portugal all the lands discovered or to be discovered situated to the east of a line drawn from pole to pole, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands; to Spain were to belong the lands situated to the west of that demarcation. This treaty, although confirmed by Pope Julius II, did not however put an end to the controversies. During the reign of John III the Portuguese pushed ever further eastward, as far as Japan, China, and Oceania. The consequences of their discoveries were profound for science and especially for geography; even more so were they for civilization and the interests of the Church. In Brazil, for example, and in India and Asia, the action of the missionaries, especially the Jesuits, was fundamental, both from the point of view of the faith and from that of the organization of civil life. In that period the Church suffered the crisis of the Lutheran rupture. The tribunal of the Inquisition was created in Portugal on 23 May 1536, with the bull of Paul III, Cum ad nihil magis. This tribunal which, placed in the hands of the civil power, later committed its abuses, at that time preserved Portugal from the terrible wars of religion. After the death of John III, the young King Sebastian ascended the throne. Having obtained the consent of the Holy See, which granted the expedition the bull of Crusade, he clashed at Alcácer Quibir, in North Africa, with the Muslims. In the tremendous defeat the young King disappeared in the fighting: thus was born the myth of "Sebastianism."

This disaster created for Portugal the second great crisis national. The cardinal-king was unable to resolve the problem of the succession to the throne. After his death on 31 Jan. 1580, it was thought that Anthony, the prior of Crato, might assume the role that the Master of Aviz had assumed back in 1385, but the Duke of Alba, with his army, gave the crown of Portugal to Philip II of Spain. During the reign of Philip II (the first of that name in Portugal) took place the disaster of the Invincible Armada, in which an important part of the Portuguese navy was destroyed. The colonial empire was destroyed by the Dutch and by the English themselves. These were sixty years of true anguish. On 1 Dec. 1640 a revolutionary movement broke out in Lisbon. Portugal was proclaimed autonomous once again at the very moment when Spain was living through difficult hours both at home and abroad. The battles then fought were won by the Portuguese, who had a new king in John IV, Duke of Braganza. At his death in 1656, the restored national autonomy was consolidated and set on the path toward greater progress. Indeed, John V soon showed himself a leader equal to his task. He reorganized the army, founded military academies at Elvas and Almeida, built arsenals, and strengthened the navy enough to be able to accept the invitation extended to him by Clement XI to help Venice against the Turks, who were defeated on 19 June 1717 at Cape Matapan. The gold of Brazil also allowed him to carry out imposing public works. From the Pope he received the title of "most faithful king" and the title of patriarch for the bishop of Lisbon. His successor Joseph I saw Lisbon completely destroyed by the terrible earthquake of 1 Nov. 1755. His prime minister was Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, later Marquis of Pombal, who revealed remarkable qualities as a rebuilder; but the full powers that he managed to concentrate in his own person allowed him to exercise a dictatorship even in ecclesiastical matters, to the point of using the Inquisition for his personal and state ends; on the pretext of an attempt against the King, he put to death a part of the Portuguese nobility and suppressed the Society of Jesus in the Kingdom. His dictatorship ceased only with the death of Joseph I (24 Feb. 1777).

Maria I, who had married her uncle Peter III, ascended the throne. Toward the end of the 18th century grave events convulsed Portugal. It had allied itself with Spain against France in 1793, when in 1796 Spain allied itself with France, imposing on Portugal the abandonment of its alliance with England, and then in 1801 moved against Portugal in order to partition it with France. Once the continental blockade against England was proclaimed, in 1807 the three French invasions began, forcing the dynasty to take refuge in Brazil, while English troops took part in the defense of the country. New ideas fermented in Portugal and led in 1820 to the revolution of Oporto with the demand for a constitution. King John VI (1816-26) left Brazil in 1821 and the following year granted the constitution, but meanwhile Brazil proclaimed itself independent and there remained to Portugal only the African and Asian colonies. An absolutist reaction, begun in 1823, became complicated by dynastic discord and kept the country agitated for many years. The ambitious policy of King Louis I led to an ultimatum on the part of England (11 Jan. 1890) concerning the African colonies, right at the beginning of the reign of Charles I; and this caused grave disturbance of the public spirit and harm to the country's internal life. The King called to the government with broad powers João Franco (1906), who dissolved Parliament (10 May 1907). But such a sound and authoritarian government sharpened the spirit of revolt, and on 1 Feb. 1908 the King and the crown prince were assassinated; then on 5 Oct. 1910 the Republic was proclaimed and the young king Manuel was sent into exile in England, where he died.

Ecclesiastical history. - Immediately after the conquest of Ceuta, Tangier and the other African cities, missionary action had begun in those lands. In 1462 Pope Pius II charged Friar Alfonso of Bolano with converting the pagans of Guinea. In 1482 the King of the Congo sent an embassy to John II requesting the light of Christian civilization. The natives received the missionaries favorably, and on Easter Sunday of 1491, 3 Apr., the first Mass was celebrated in the territory of Soio. Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits all labored in the new Empire (v. ANGOLA). The conversion of Ethiopia was not achieved, but the Jesuits had begun a wonderful work of apostolate with the consent of the Ethiopians themselves (v. ETHIOPIA).

In Asia there arrived, as a companion of Vasco da Gama, in 1498, Friar Pero da Covilhã, who is thought to have been a victim of the pagans. In 1500 the first priests, Franciscans, arrived in India with the squadron of Cabral, the discoverer of Brazil. Until 1542 the missions were directed by Franciscans, who then had eleven convents, three colleges for orphans and eighty missionary residences from East Africa to the Sea of China. Francis Xavier (v.) arrived in India on 6 May of that year, with special powers from the Pope and a mission from John III, and began the magnificent series of his apostolic journeys throughout the East. But the greatest glory of the Society of Jesus was the formation and Christianization of Brazil. With the advent of enlightened despotism, the Society of Jesus received in Portugal, as throughout Europe, a very hard blow. The consequences were not long in coming, especially in the colonies. The lay and liberal spirit contaminated the structure of the nation's purest forces (but before that time the work of a martyr of the Society of Jesus, St. John de Brito, had once again flourished). Secularism, however, did not take long to nullify the fruits of so much secular labor. At the beginning of the new century, with the advent of liberalism, the religious Orders, the monasteries, the convents and the ecclesiastical hospitals in continental Portugal were extinguished in consequence of the law of 30 May 1834. The goods of the Church were for the most part incorporated into the patrimony of the State. The liberal work was completed by the anti-religious measures of the new Republic.

3. Contemporary Portugal

The first fifteen years of the new Republic had a very sad history: revolutions at every moment, disorders, party struggles, attacks, assassinations, persecutions against the representatives of the Church, ministries succeeding one another in impotence to administer justice, maintain public order and the balance of the finances. "The Fatherland is sick," affirmed the public prosecutor himself, General Carmona, during the trial of the revolutionaries of 18 Apr. 1925. On 28 May 1926 the movement of General Gomes da Costa arose at Braga and a revival of national political life began, in order, in legality, in respect for the Church and for the sound ideas of tradition. On 25 March 1928 General Oscar Carmona was elected president of the Republic. On 27 Apr. of the same year Professor Oliveira Salazar, of the University of Coimbra, became minister of Finance and then prime minister. The Constitution and the Portuguese Colonial Act, the new "magna carta" of the Lusitanian Empire, reflect certain principles defended in the papal encyclicals of Leo XIII, Pius X, and Pius XI. While continuing the separation between Church and State proclaimed by the Republic, a climate of great respect toward the Church was created; the Concordat and the Missionary Agreement, signed in Rome on May 7, 1940 with the Holy See, constitute a new step forward in the defense of the spiritual heritage inherited from their forebears. One of the most interesting measures of the agreement is the one concerning marriage, which had been considered by the Republic a merely civil contract; now the Portuguese government again recognizes juridical effects in the civil sphere for religious marriage. From the point of view of international politics, Salazar's government maintained a policy of neutrality during the last war, preserved the alliance with England and made a pact of non-aggression and friendship with Spain. In the field of culture, under the ministry of Prof. Cordeiro Ramos the last secular institutions created against the ecclesiastical organization by the Republic are abolished, and a reform of education is undertaken in which the moral and spiritual tradition of the Church is respected. P. has thus been able to find and take up again, as Pius XII said in his message of Oct. 31, 1942, the lost road of its most beautiful traditions as a Most Faithful Nation.

Giuseppe Vittorino de Pina Martins

III. ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION

Portugal currently has one patriarchate and two metropolitan sees with 14 suffragan sees. 1) Patriarchate: LISBON, with the suffragan sees: ANGRA, FUNCHAL, GUARDA, LEIRIA, PORTALEGRE; SANTIAGO DI CAPO VERDE (in the Cape Verde islands); 2) Metropolitan see: BRAGA, with the suffragan sees: AVEIRO, BRAGANZA, COIMBRA, LAMEGO, PORTO, VILLA REALE, VISCU; 3) Metropolitan see: EVORA, with the suffragan sees: BEJA, FARO.

IV. LEGAL STATUS OF THE CHURCH

It is regulated by the Concordat stipulated on 7 May 1940. In this, the juridical personality of the Catholic Church is recognized (art. 1), to which is guaranteed the free exercise of its power of order and of jurisdiction, as well as full freedom of direct communication with the clergy and the Portuguese Catholics (art. 2).

Ecclesiastics are exempt from the obligation to assume offices incompatible by canon law with the ecclesiastical state (art. 13).

Ecclesiastical associations and organizations, which (arts. 3 and 4) may obtain recognition of juridical personality and acquire property, are free (art. 20) to erect and maintain private schools, subsidized and state-equated, parallel to the state ones. The founding of seminaries and of any other institute of formation or of higher ecclesiastical culture is free. In public elementary, complementary and secondary schools, in nurseries, orphanages, official establishments and institutes of education, etc., instruction in the Catholic religion will be imparted, using texts approved by the ecclesiastical authority (art. 21).

The Portuguese State recognizes the civil effects of marriages celebrated in conformity with the canon laws and transcribed in the competent offices of the civil registry, and the exclusive competence with respect to these marriages, in matters of nullity and of a ratified but non-consummated marriage, of the ecclesiastical tribunals (arts. 22, 23 and 25); art. 24 expressly declares that «in harmony with the essential properties of Catholic marriage, it is understood that, by the very fact of the celebration of the canonical marriage, the spouses will renounce the civil faculty of seeking divorce, which therefore cannot be applied by the civil tribunals to Catholic marriages».

The Concordat, which confirms the force of the provisions not incompatible with or modified by the agreements of 21 Feb. 1857, 23 June 1886, 15 Apr. 1928 and 11 Apr. 1929, is integrated by a missionary agreement concluded under the same date and jointly ratified on 1 June 1940; for the Indian dioceses v. PADROADO.

Diplomatic relations between Portugal and the Holy See are maintained by means of the apostolic nuncio and the ambassador accredited to the Vatican.

V. LITERATURE

The Portuguese language, born in the territories of the extreme northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, precisely in those straddling the Minho River, which today marks the political border between Spain and Portugal, gradually spread toward the south of the western strip of the Peninsula, following the Christian reconquest that drove the Arabs back toward Africa: from the regions in which it was first used it was called Galician-Portuguese, until, thanks mainly to the absorption of Galicia by the kingdom of León and the subsequent incorporation of that region into the Spanish State (toward the end of the 15th century), it ended up splitting into two speech forms, Galician and Portuguese properly so called. But from the time of the first linguistic vestiges (9th-10th centuries) until the end of the 12th century the Portuguese speech form concerns philology, not literature. The latter has its origin toward the end of the 12th century, with a notable precedence of poetry over prose, and is customarily divided into three epochs: medieval, classical and modern, each with distinct phases.

1. Medieval epoch (1189-1503)

It begins with a love poem by the troubadour Pai Soares de Taveirós, called the "Ribeirinha" from the endearing diminutive of the lady sung in it, and ends with the performance of the first auto by Gil Vicente, the Mondogo do Vaqueiro. The two phases customarily recognized in it take the name of the phase of Galician-Portuguese lyric (12th-14th centuries) and the phase of palace lyric (15th century). The first, known through three of the surviving Cancioneiros among the many, perhaps fourteen, in which it must have been collected in its time (those of Ajuda, of the Vatican, Colocci-Brancuti or of the National Library), and through the poetic compositions of King Alfonso the Wise of Castile, constitutes one of the most interesting and suggestive manifestations of medieval Neo-Latin poetry. Without disregarding the influence exercised on it by Provençal lyric, one must readily admit that, beyond their local and therefore peculiar and original character, the cantigas de amigo (songs of the friend) possess an absolute poetic value; these constitute, together with the cantigas de amor (love songs), the gentilezas (courtesies), one of the two themes treated in such lyric, according to the classification given by the humanist and sixteenth-century poet Garcia de Resende (the other theme is that of the coisas de folgar o cantigas de escárnio ou de mal dizer: "things to gladden, or songs of mockery or of cursing," of lesser artistic importance, by their very nature as occasional pieces).

While in fact the "love songs" pay an evident tribute to the troubadour fashion, echoing its themes and forms, the "songs of the friend" reveal an unexpected poetic maturity. Their protagonist is the woman in love, donna virgo or donna d'algo, who loves with sincerity of heart and expresses her anxieties by addressing herself directly to her beloved (amigo), more often speaking of him with her mother or with a female friend. The figure of the beloved, as she portrays him, enlivens the many types of song in which the woman recalls where and when she met him, the dawn songs, the ballads, the zerramilhas, the pastourelles, the songs of romeria, the barcaroles: of the elements of nature, by the circumstances of place and time, the most frequent is the sea; the feeling of love and the emotion of the sea merge, giving rise to the state of mind that Portuguese tradition emphasizes as typical of its own people and its own poetry, a complex of longing-waiting-hope and many further nuances, which all together confusedly that people calls, with a word untranslatable into other languages, saidade. Of the more than two hundred authors of the cancioneros (with ca. two thousand compositions), of 163 of whom some biographical notice has come down to us, only a few names will be cited here, among those of composers chiefly, or exclusively, of "songs of the friend": Nuno Fernandes de Torneol (1st half of the 13th century), author of delicate lyrics; João Zorro, juggler-soldier-sailor (end of the 13th century), author of barcaroles; Martim Codax, author, in the first part of the 13th century, of the most famous barcarole, Cadas do mar de Vigo, the only lyric of the cancioneros that has come down to us accompanied by music; João Soares Coelho (ca. 1210-80), a learned poet, in contact with foreigners, probably also with Sordello; João Aires de Santiago, the most prolific composer, after D. Diniz. This great king (1261-1325) is in fact the most prolific and the greatest representative of Galician-Portuguese lyric: in him converge and merge the poetry of traditional motifs, learned poetry, and that of fresh popular origin.

The maturity rapidly attained by the Galician-Portuguese language in lyric, together with various other motives, extended its use also to the poets of the other regions of the Peninsula. First among them, for importance of human and poetic personality, was the grandfather of D. Diniz, Alfonso the Wise (1221?-84), whose work in verse, or Livro das cantigas de Santa Maria (430 compositions), enriches that primitive poetry with a new theme, the religious one (in it the miracles of the Virgin are set forth and exalted), and furthermore places alongside lyrical expression properly so called the narrative kind: from this came a decisive enlargement in the framework of the first Iberian poetic manifestation (musical accompaniments have come down to us from Alfonso the Wise as well). Palace lyric, come down through the Cancioneiro Geral, also called de Resende (1516), from the name of the already mentioned Garcia de Resende, who collected in it a thousand compositions by 286 authors of the second half of the 15th century, artistically mediocre on the whole and monotonous, because it draws inspiration solely from the aristocratic class from which its composers come, reveals the subsequent overturning of the cultural situation and gives the first signs of Castilian influence on Portuguese literature (a sixth part of this cancionero is written in Castilian). Here too the most frequent theme is love, but treated all too often with cerebral games: meanwhile there peeps out the knowledge of the Italian Trecentisti, at least in the external aspects of their inspiration, and almost always through the first Spanish Italianists (such as the Marquis of Santillana). But more than one poet is saved in it: Diogo Brandão (?-1530), melancholic and musical; d. João Manuel (1460-99), who suggestively adapts more than one Petrarchan attitude to the Portuguese temperament and who draws inspiration, in the trovas in Castilian Sobre os sete pecados mortais, from the Dantean motif of the otherworldly journey. The reflection of Dante is more evident in the Trovas das cousas que vin of one of the least conventional and most interesting poets of the cancionero, Duarte de Brito. Duarte de Resende, on the other hand, introduces into love poetry realistic touches unknown to primitive lyric; while other composers readily assume markedly satirical attitudes.

Slow but continuous was the refining of prose. To the Cistercians of the monastery of Alcobaça belongs the first activity, with translating from Latin or with elaborating religious works (lives of saints, rules of Orders, etc.), chronicles and "books of lineage" (the latter being attempts at universal history or at encyclopedic treatise, such as the Nobiliário do Conde d. Pedro). But the most significant genres concern chivalric life, didactics and history. Above all the atmosphere of the Round Table attracts the Portuguese interest of those centuries and produces, with the História dos Cavaleiros da Mesa Redonda e da Demanda do Santo Graal (between the 13th and 14th centuries), the most notable work of literary prose preceding that of the historians, while the Amadis de Gaula (whose oldest written version that has come down to us, of the the beginning of the 16th century, is in Spanish, but whose spirit is unmistakably Portuguese) begins the series of the great chivalric narratives of the Iberian peninsula. In didactic prose the activity of kings and princes stands out, or activity stimulated by them; foremost are: the Livro da Montaria of King d. João I (1365-1433); the Livro da Ensinança do Bem Cavalgar Toda Sela and the Leal Conselheiro of his son King d. Duarte (1391-1438); and the Tractado da Virtuosa Bemfeituria, the most balanced and mature work of the genre, by d. Pedro (1392-1449), brother of d. Duarte. But the great personality of medieval prose is the chronicler Fernão Lopes (1380?-1460), with the three biographies that have come down to us of the kings d. Pedro I, d. Fernando I and d. João I: his successors, Azurara, Rui de Pina, etc., are inferior to him.

2. Classical era (1502-1825)

The first of its three phases, the sixteenth-century or Italian-school phase (1502-80, death of Camões and beginning of Spanish domination), is the golden century of Portuguese literature. It opens with Gil Vicente (1465?-1537?), author of 44 (or perhaps 46) autos (10 tragicomedies, 13 farces, 17 "works of devotion" or "moralities") which present an exceptionally broad world, still very much alive today, and which constitute the precondition of the further Iberian theater, at least for the peninsular form of the sacred drama, the auto. The three Barcas, do Inferno (1516), do Purgatorio (1518) and da Glória (1519), implacable social satires and most delicate religious elevations; the Farsa de Inês Pereira (1523), a theatrically perfect comic action; the Auto da Cananeia (1534), a moving lyrical evocation of Jesus' welcome, into the kingdom of his Grace, of the Canaanite woman, can be considered masterpieces of Gil Vicente. While the theater moves toward humanistic forms, Italian influence penetrates decisively into lyric poetry, through the Eclogas of Bernardin Ribeiro (1482?-1552), also the author of a famous chivalric romance, in prose and verse, Saidades, better known as Menina e Moça, and which welcomes, not without strong opposition at first, our forms and spirits through the art theory and the lyric poetry of Sa de Miranda (1481-1558?), who came into contact, during his five years (1521-26) of residence in Italy, with the major literary men of the time. And while in lyric poetry the dispute develops between Italianizers (the most original of them is Diogo Bernardes, 1530-1600?) and traditionalists (the most significant is Antonio Ferreira, 1528-69, also the author of the most famous sixteenth-century tragedy, Castro), prose matures and broadens to embrace the widest fields and themes. There is chivalric prose, with the Palmeirim de Inglaterra (1567) of Francisco de Morais (1500?-1572?); bucolic prose, represented by the already mentioned Menina e Moça of B. Ribeiro; humanistic-popular prose, exemplified in the Contos e Histórias de proveito e exemplo (1575-96) of Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520?-95?), which are inspired by Italian novella writing; religious prose, very rich, and an effective instrument, also literary, of the sense of concreteness of a people who, while looking toward God, keep their feet firmly on the ground (fr. Heitor Pinto, 1528?-84, with Imagem da Vida Christã, 1563-1572; fr. Amador Arrais, 1530-1600, with the Diálogos, 1589; fr. Tomé de Jesús, 1529-82, with the Trabalhos de Jesús, 1602-1609, and others); scientific prose, the pride, for its chronological precedence in Europe and for its multiplicity, of a people intent on knowledge of the world (Pedro Nunes, 1492?-1576?; Garcia da Orta, 1495-1570). But especially notable is the prose that accompanies the navigations and conquests, from that of the reports on the countries reached (from India to Brazil) to that of the autobiographies of the most sagacious navigators or governors, or of the most disconcerting adventurers — as, among the latter, Fernão Mendes Pinto (1510?-83) of the very famous Peregrinação (1614) —, or of the most unfortunate shipwrecked men — as of those in the pages collected later (1735-56) in the História trágico-marítima of Bernardo Gomes de Brito (1688-?) — down to that, finally, of the historians. History indeed becomes, in the Portuguese Renaissance, the narration and interpretation, in an exalting sense of the national exploit, of overseas activity, revealing itself as particularly pathetic in the Décadas (1552-1615) of João de Barros (1496?-1570), more or less effectively developed by Diogo de Couto (1542-1616) and by the humanist Damião de Góis (1502-74), among many others.

An ideal synthesis of the multiform world of the century was Luís de Camões ([v.] 1524-80); in whom flow back the most demanding elements of the literary tradition and of national consciousness, which the poet fuses, in a happy communion between culture and life, in the epic poem Os Lusíadas (1572), deservedly risen to symbol of his people. But Camões also speaks the highest word in lyric poetry, in which, wisely and skillfully making his own also the Petrarchan atmosphere, according to the Renaissance aesthetic canon of perfect imitation — perfect poetry, he expresses with admirable balance his inner exuberance.

The seventeenth-century or Spanish-influence phase (1580-1700) is the most inferior: the depression over foreign domination, first, and the restlessness inevitable in the settling of recovered freedom (1640) afterward, together with the well-known phenomena of seventeenth-century mannerism, at least in its traditional negative senses, seriously compromise the literary fact. In poetry, an interminable series of mediocre epic poems deludes itself into repeating Os Lusíadas, while an equally inexhaustible chain of lyrics takes pleasure in playing with concettism, in the atmosphere of Spanish-style fashion, as appears from the two main anthological collections, the Fenix Renascida (1716-28), and the Postilhão de Apolo (1761-62). Yet there is no lack in them of touches of freshness and spontaneity, first of all that of religious-mystical inspiration, which is seen especially in three nuns, Violante do Céu, Maria do Céu, Maria Madalena da Glória: and an exception to the mediocrity of the age is Francisco Rodrigues Lobo (1580-1622), who treats with originality, besides various genres — lyric, bucolic, epic — of poetry, also many of prose — pastoral romance, court themes — as, with regard to the latter, in the Córte na Aldeia e Noites de Inverno (1619) that of Il cortegiano by Castiglione. But the most notable writer of the seventeenth century is Francisco Manuel de Melo, son of a Portuguese and a Spanish woman (1608-66) and a classic author both in Portuguese and in Spanish, in the treatment of the most varied themes, from marriage (Carta de guía de casados, 1661) to history (História de los movimientos y separación de Cataluña, 1645) to sententious and humorous moralism (Apólogos Dialogais, posthumous, 1721, among which the fourth is famous, the Hospital das Letras, a very acute critique of the ancient and modern literary worlds), in prose; and in poetry, from the theater (Auto do Fidalgo Aprendiz, 1665) to lyric poetry (almost all in Castilian: Las tres musas del Melodino, 1644, etc.). The prose of the century, meanwhile, wandering in concettism in the historical genre, and taking pleasure in stylistic audacity in the biographical and mystical ones, nevertheless manifests a suggestive effectiveness in sacred oratory, in which the Jesuit António Vieira (1608-1697) stands out, who preached his (Sermães in P., in Italy (here, also in Italian) and in Brazil).

The eighteenth-century phase, also called that of French influence (1700-1825, year of publication of the poem Camões by Garrett), is marked, in the first half of the eighteenth century, by the rise or reform of the academies, which are concerned with reviving the contacts of the Portuguese world with the outside. Meanwhile there appears, among the personalities striving for spiritual and intellectual renewal, that of Fr. Luis Antonio Verney (1713-92), formed in Italy on the work of Muratori and Genovesi, who with the Verdadeiro Método de Estudar (1746) revolutionized the life of thought, especially pedagogical thought, in his country. And in Lisbon the Arcadia Lusitana (or Ulisiponense, 1756) arose, which in Italian forms echoed above all French spirits, recalling poetry in the footsteps of the national and foreign Renaissance and freeing the ground from seventeenth-century mannerism. Of particular importance in those decades were the theater (with clamorous popularity, on the Portuguese stage, of Goldoni and Metastasio, adapted to Portuguese taste), satire (among other things with a mock-heroic poem, the Hissopo, by one of the two founders of the Arcadia, António Diniz da Cruz e Silva, 1731-99, which calls to mind the poems of Tassoni and Parini), lyric poetry (in which, among the many, the other founder of the Arcadia, Pedro António Correia Garção, 1724-72, stood out) and the epic (brought back into honor by José Basilio da Gama, 1740-95, and José de Santa Rita Durão, 1722-84, both Brazilian by origin). But toward the end of the century many Arcadians in name are such only in part, or are no longer so at all: poetry came back to life (and warmth also returned to culture and to the fashionable versifications of scientific themes), above all by returning to the sources of feeling, first and foremost with Manuel Barbosa Bocage (1765-1805), who restored the sonnet to the human intensity and artistic balance lost after the sixteenth century: romanticism was by then imminent.

3. Modern era (1825-1952)

The romantic era is precisely the first of its three phases, which extends to 1871, the year of the so-called "Democratic Conferences of the Casino of Lisbon." With national life violently set in motion again, first by the French invasion and the liberation, then by the civil struggles between absolutists and liberals, two writers who had known the paths of exile, João Batista de Almeida Garrett (1799-1854) and Alexandre Herculano (1810-77), communicated the new ideas to their literature, adapting them to circumstances and to the local and patriotic temperament. Garrett, of restless existence, socially and politically fortunate, sentimentally inexhaustible, enlivened with fine sensibility and acute psychological intuition his own lyrical work (especially in the collection Fólias Caídas, 1853), theatrical work (especially in the drama Fr. Luis de Sousa, 1844) and narrative work (especially in the novel Viagens na minha terra, 1846). It is then to Garrett that the merit belongs of having drawn attention to the ancient poetic traditions, with the collection of the Romanceiro. The cultural integration of P. into the rest of Europe is, however, for the most part the work of Herculano (v.). Besides poetry, artistically mediocre, he cultivated narrative and history, with a gradual passage from the historical novel to history properly so called, revealing in it the scruple of a researcher of what seemed to the author to be the truth of facts and of men. While Herculano's narrative masterpiece is the novel Eurico o Presbítero (1844) - there a theme dear to the Iberian literatures is confronted, the conflict between feeling and duty in the Catholic priest - his most important historical work is the História do Portugal (1846-53), alongside which stands the collection of the Portugaliae Monumenta Historica. Much inferior to the fame attributed by tradition in the romantic movement is the poet António Feliciano de Castilho (1800-75), more interesting as a translator than as an original author. Romantic literature evolved, producing in lyric poetry two movements sliding toward sentimentalism (those of the Coimbra journals O Trovador, 1844, around João de Lemos, 1818-90; and O Novo Trovador, 1851, around António Augusto Soares de Passos, 1826-60); producing in narrative and history works that laboriously tried themselves in Herculano's wake; but defining themselves with new values, ever more visible, in the psychological novel, where above all the passage to the new phase takes place, with the so-called rural novel of Júlio Dinis (1839-71), an author of fine psychology in the study of the environment, especially of the countryside (As pupilas do Senhor Reitor-Crónica de aldeia, 1866, and A Morgadinha dos Canavias, 1868) - seen with benevolence but without distortion -

and with the passionate novel of the extremely prolific Camilo Castelo Branco (1826-90), whose work oscillates between a disordered and belated romanticism and the pitiless, extremely acute observation, wholly modern, of his time and customs: famous and most popular in the Portuguese tradition, for its romantic and passionate atmosphere, is his Amor de Perdigão (1862), but certainly more remarkable are Novelas do Minho (1875) and A Brasileira de Prazius (1882), which together with the very many other minor works of the genre can certainly be considered the introduction to realism. And meanwhile, between romanticism and realism, apart from poetic schools, flourishes the evocative lyrical work of a solitary singer of love, João da Dena (1830-96), with Flos do Campo (1868) and Campo de Flores (1893).

Realist, or post-Romantic, is what the second phase of the modern era (1871-1900, the death of Eça de Queiroz) is called. It opens with the violent rebellion of a group of young students of Coimbra against the dictatorship of old Castilho, a rebellion begun with what was called the "Coimbra Question" (1865), and defined by the aforementioned "Democratic Conferences of the Casino of Lisbon" (1871), held by those young men, which, though soon suspended by the authorities, set in motion the course of the new ideas. The revolution brought about by this generation is the ideal sum of three different manifestations: around Antero de Quental (IV.) 1842-91), who gave the start to the "Question" and who prepared the "Conferences", the seething of social ideas that, to simplify, can be called socialism (politically it later dissolved as Antero de Quental withdrew into his human drama and his poetic world); around Teófilo Braga (1843-1924) the school of positivism in science and of republicanism in politics; around Eça de Queiroz (1845-1900) the world of writers of seemingly more conciliatory ideas and more composed attitudes but of the broadest horizons and of a criticism both demolishing and constructive at the same time: it is the group defined, by one of its members, Oliveira Martins, as the "Vanquished of Life". Antero de Quental produces the poetically highest work of the modern Portuguese world, above all in the Sonetos completos. The anxious and inexhaustible cultural and literary research of Teófilo Braga, intent on gathering the Materiais para a história da civilização portuguesa, prepares the documents that will make possible a calmer and more objective interpretation of the literary fact for the succeeding generation. And the whole of the realization of thought and art of the "Vanquished of Life" greatly shortens the distance that separates Portugal of that time from the other countries. João Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845-94) bursts with decided violence into the national historical tradition, obeying the formula — enunciated by himself — that "history must always be a resurrection, and the artistic or synthetic process will always be the one suited to it". Thus is born, from his works (fundamental are the História da Republica Romana, 1885; the História da civilização ibérica, 1879; the História de Portugal, 1879), a Portugal seen and felt in a way different from traditionalism, suggestively inserted into a world pathetically evoked. Eça de Queiroz makes the novel complete the full course of realism (O crime do Padre Amaro, 1875; O primo Basilio, 1878; Os Maia, 1880), profoundly scrutinizing the Portuguese soul and arriving, in the work of his last years (A ilustre Casa de Ramires, 1897; A cidade e as serras, 1901; and the 16 letters of the Correspondência de Pratique Mendes, 1891), at covering with a veil of restrained yet moved poetry the man who stands at the center of his own literary creation. Ramalho Ortigão (1836-1915) in prose and Guerra Junqueiro (1850-1923) in poetry ideally close the group of the "Vanquished of Life"; and while narrative prose spreads out, and also loses itself, in the imitation of Eça de Queiroz, journalistic prose is refined (and that of travel accounts increases, which also interests Italy, but which gives its best pages with the books of Wenceslau de Morais, 1854-1929, on Japan), historiographic prose regains seriousness of study and an ever more sure consciousness of erudition appears (as, in the field of philology, with Francisco Adolfo Coelho, 1847-1919, and José Leite de Vasconcellos, 1858-1941; and of criticism with Moniz Barreto, 1865-94).

The third and last phase, the contemporary one, seems to oscillate between the two extremes: bringing the Portuguese world up to date with the rest of the European world and persistence in its own tradition. Lyric poetry has passed through more or less all the experiences known to the other countries of Europe: from the realist moment, represented among others by Gomes Leal (1849-1921; but from his best collection, Claridades do Sul, of 1875, a delicate spirituality shines through) and by Cesário Verde (1855-86, who however slips toward crepuscularism), it has gone on evolving: it has tried symbolism, introduced by Eugénio de Castro (1869-1944, who in certain respects makes one think of D'Annunzio) and raised to its happiest poetic expression, with an original adaptation to the national tradition, by António Nobre (1866-1900), with Só (1898); saudosismo (reawakening of poetry and of art theory in a nationalist sense), championed above all by Teixeira de Pascoaes (b. 1878) and by Afonso Lopes Vieira (1878-1946); modernism, symbolized by the manifold and disconcerting personality and by the poetic values still variously assessed of Fernando Pessoa (1888-1935; Obras completas, 1945-46): in the oscillation between the aesthetic and "technical" enrichment brought by Pessoa and the attachment to the past, his generation has continued, and, on the whole, so have the succeeding ones down to the present. The theater, after a brief realist phase of almost exclusively foreign imitation, found an interesting artistic moment in the passage between the two centuries, in a suggestive and unexpectedly neo-Romantic attitude, with a predilection for historical drama, but enriched with psychological introspection (João da Câmara, 1852-1908; Eduardo Schwalbach, 1860-1946; Júlio Dantas, b. 1876), to evolve then toward the accentuation of social problems and the exasperation of pathological situations (from Vitoriano Braga, 1888-1940, to Carlos Selvagem, b. 1891, to Alfredo Cortês [1880-1945]), not without the concern to reconcile traditional values with psychological deepenings and artistic novelties (from Vasco de Mendonça Alves, b. 1887, to Ramada Curto, b. 1887).

In prose, the novel and the novella manifest, at the opening of the twentieth century, the influence of Eça de Queiroz, in "technique" as well as in the choice of themes and the related psychological development (worthy of mention, among the many, Raul Brandão, 1867-1930), while the multiplication of social needs and problems acts on the narrative closest to us, which at the same time has gone on refining itself artistically also thanks to the ever closer contacts with foreign narrative: outstanding among living novelists are the prolific Aquilino Ribeiro (b. 1885), implacable in psychological examination and disconcerting in his highly personal style (A via Sinuosa, 1919; S. Banoboldo anacoreto e mártir, 1937; Volfrâmio, 1944 etc.), José Maria Ferreira de Castro (b. 1898), pathetic describer of emigration to Brazil (Emigrantes, 1928; A Selva, 1930) and of the hardships of the humblest classes (À là e a neve, 1947; etc.) and perhaps the most significant representative of an openly Catholic narrative tradition, Manuel Ribeiro (1879-1942). But perhaps the prose that most interests us, of contemporary Portugal, is that devoted to the history of culture in the broad sense, because of the evident acceleration of rhythm that it has revealed in this regard in recent times. The interpretation of history, in fact, has on the whole known how to reconcile the contemporary maturity of interpretation with the intention of opposing a dike to the doctrinaire exaggerations of every tendency: this is documented, among other things, by the Revista da História (1912-28), founded and directed by Fidelino de Figueiredo (b. 1889), and in whose atmosphere wrote profitably, above all, João Lúcio de Azevedo (1855-1933): from a pro-combative depth of thought is inspired the work, among others, of António Sérgio (b. 1883). Research and literary criticism have awakened, welcoming, within the erudite tradition, systems of sobriety and concerns for objectivity: the chief merit for this goes to the already mentioned F. de Figueiredo (A história literária como ciência, 1912; História literária de Portugal, 1944), while philology too, in the narrow sense of the word, has become cautious and discerning, among others with Manuel Rodrigues Lapa (b. 1897), or is accompanied by a broad cultural information, as in Hernâni Cidade (b. 1887), or by a pleasant evocation of milieus and men, as in Vitorino Nemésio (b. 1901); substance of ideas has also been assumed by the "essay" among the many "militant" critics interested in contemporary national and foreign literature, as in João Gaspar Simões (b. 1903).

BIBL. F. Denis, Résumé de l'hist. littér. du Portugal, etc., Paris 1826; C. Michaelis de Vasconcellos, Gesch. der portugiesisch. Liter., Strasbourg 1894; T. Braga, Hist. de literat. portuguesa, 4 vols., Porto 1908-16; E. Carre Aldao, Literat. Galega (with extensive bibl.), 2nd ed., Barcelona 1911; A. F. G. Bell, Portuguese Literat., Oxford 1922; F. de Figueiredo, Hist. de la literat. portuguesa, Barcelona 1927; A. Forjaz de Sampaio, Hist. da literat. portuguesa ilustrata (written by various authors), 4 vols., Lisbon 1929-32 the first three, the 4th n.d.; M. dos Remédios, Hist. da literat. portuguesa desde as origens até à actualidade, 16th ed., Coimbra 1930; G. Le Gentil, La littér. portugaise, Paris 1935, 2nd ed. 1950; A. Fortes and A. Forjaz de Sampaio, Hist. da liter. portuguesa, Lisbon 1936; F. de Figueiredo, Hist. liter. de Portugal (12th-20th cent.), Coimbra 1944; O. Lopes and J. Martins, Breve hist. da liter. portuguesa, Lisbon 1945; A. Ribeiro da Cunha, A língua e a literatura portuguesa. Historia e crítica, Braga 1948. - In Italy: G. C. Rossi, L'Arcadia e il romanticismo in P., Florence 1941; id., Stor. della letter. portoghese, ibid. 1932; for a summary orientation on the relations between Portuguese and Italian literature in general cf., by the same author, the Breve hist. da literat. ital., Lisbon 1946.

Giuseppe Carlo Rossi

ART

Ruins of Roman constructions, among which the remains of the temple of Evora are the greatest example, the Visigothic church of Balsemão (Lamego) of the 8th century, the S. Frutuoso of Braga which has a clearly Byzantine character, the Mozarabic church of Lauroso (10th century), the S. Amaro of Beja and a few other more or less preserved buildings testify to the artistic activity in P. in the period prior to the Romanesque age. It was then that the manifestations of art developed from the north toward the south, like the march of the "Reconquista," leaving notable monuments in the cathedrals of Braga, Porto, Lamego, Coimbra and Lisbon which in varying degrees reflect manners derived from southern France. The same may be said of the subsequent forms of Gothic architecture, of which the church of the Cistercian monastery of Alcobaça is the purest example.

These Gothic forms, however, often merge in P. with the earlier Romanesque ones, generating complexes not devoid of beauty, such as the S. João of Alporão (Santarem). But at the end of the 14th century they take on a new appearance in the great church of S. Maria della Vittoria at Aljubarrota, better known by the name of Batalha, the work of the architects Alfonso Dominigues (1388-1402), Onguete (1402-38) and the later Mateus Fernandes. The latter, together with his sons Pedro and Filippo Enrico, with Diogo and Francisco de Arruda, with Boytac and with Marcus Pirez, is among the major architects active during the reign of King Manuel I. It is they who elaborate the style called precisely "Manueline," because it developed during the reign of that monarch, and characterized above all by an intense and highly conspicuous decoration of a naturalistic character, also echoing Asian themes, which gives the architectural forms a sense of opulence sometimes even Baroque. Essential monuments of this style are, along with some parts of Batalha, the convent of Christ and the Sanctuary of the Templars of Tomar, the Tower of Belem near Lisbon, as well as a very remarkable number of portals and windows partly even later than the reign of King Manuel, when the Manueline style is also influenced by the Spanish plateresco of Diogo and João de Castilho.

The principal centers of diffusion of Renaissance forms were in the 16th century: Thomar, Coimbra and Evora. At Tomar they appear fairly pure in the little church of the Conceição, in connection with which the name of Sansovino has even been mentioned, and in the buildings of Serlian and Palladian stamp by Diogo de Torralva, especially the cloister of the Filippi; at Evora and Coimbra, above all through the work of the Italianizing and French sculptors, the principal one of whom is Nicola Chanterène. Then, in the last quarter of the century, the Italian Filippo Terzi, who arrived in P. in 1576 as a military architect, but was soon active also in the fields of ecclesiastical and civil architecture, building the S. Vincente de Fora in Lisbon, the royal Palace of that city, completing the cloister of the Filippi of Tomar, building the episcopal Palace of Coimbra and in all likelihood the great church of Serra do Pilar in Porto, gave new models to the local masters who throughout the 17th century did not forget his straightforward and solemn manner of building.

During the Baroque age in Portuguese architecture two currents must be distinguished: one very lively, especially at Braga, of an almost popular tone, characterized by an elegant decoration that develops opulently in the façades and interiors against the white background of the walls, and among the major examples one cites that of the church of Falperra and the other of the Congregandos; the other of an aulic tone and connected to Italian forms: first to those of Guarino Guarini, who was active also in Lisbon, and then, in the 18th century, to those of Federico Ludovici, a German who had become Italianized, author of the great church and convent of Mafra, of the Bibbiena active in Lisbon, and finally of Nicolò Nasoni or Nazzoni, a Sienese who lived in Oporto between 1732 and 1773 and author, among other things, of that true masterpiece which is the church and tower dos Clerigos.

The vicissitudes of sculpture in P. do not differ much from those of architecture and reflect the same influences that in the tombs of the 13th and 14th centuries existing in the churches of Evora, Braga, Lisbon and Alcobaça are above all those of French sculpture; and so again during the 15th century, until at the end of that century and the beginning of the next the Renaissance forms arrive in P. both through the work of French and Spanish sculptors more or less Italianized, and finally through direct Italian contributions, among which one must always remember that of Sansovino, who Vasari claims stayed a long time in P. and of whom in the region, more than works certainly his, one can point to sculptures certainly influenced by his manner. Among the other very important sculptors active in the 16th century is the already mentioned Nicola Chanterène (active between 1517 and 1550) of Italian training, active especially at Coimbra, Evora, Sintra and Belem; and João de Ruão (d. 1580) to whom numerous works must be attributed and who exercised a strong influence on local artists. During the Baroque age sculpture develops above all in the sumptuous decorations that sometimes clothe the straightforward architectural forms, until in the first half of the century under the reign of John X there went to settle at Mafra, where many marbles ordered from Rome by Ludovici flowed in, Alessandro Giusti who precisely at Mafra, between 1753 and 1770, carried on a great activity also as a master of the chisel for many Portuguese. To the most original activities of these must be assigned not only many devotional images in the churches, but also an intense production of little Nativity-scene figures.

The vicissitudes of painting in P., apart from the activity of Italian masters who immigrated to the region or of Portuguese in Italy (Alvaro Pirez de Evora), begin with the manifestation of the great personality of Nuño Gonçalves (v.), active between 1450 and 1470, whose relations with Flemish painting and with the tapestry-making of southern France are evident, as are those, moreover, with contemporary Spanish painting. Around the truly grandiose figure of this painter and his greatest work, the polyptych of S. Vincente, scholars have been grouping minor works and figures of artists active at the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th, without for all that succeeding so far in tracing the outlines of an individual history of Portuguese painting. To be remembered, in any case, are the Master of Sardoal, Francisco Henriques, Frei Carlos active especially at Evora, while there form part of the so-called school of Viseu and carried on a notable activity in the Manueline period Vasco Fernandez, the Master of the Retable of the cathedral of Viseu and Gaspar Vaz. At that time in Lisbon there worked in the workshop of Jorge Alfonso Crostoforo di Figueredo, to whom various paintings of notable value are attributed, Garcia Fernandez and Gregorio Lopes court painter until 1550. Then during the 17th century Portuguese painting, whose manners are confused with those of Spanish painting, still boasts an artist of notable interest, Dominico Vieira, while in the 18th century there still arrive in P. influences and works from Italy and from France, contributing to the formation of that Francisco Vieira de Matos, better known as Vieira Lusitano (1699-1783), who was also in Rome a pupil of Luti and of Trevisani, of Francisco Vieira Portuense (1765-1805) and of Domingo Antonio de Sequeira (1768-1837), the latter two painters of very notable interest also for the Romantic foreshadowings of their art.

Emilio Lavagnino

VII. SCHOOL SYSTEM

Instruction takes place in government schools and in private schools. The latter are subject to the control of the Ministry of Education and regulated by Law no. 2033 of June 27, 1949. Art. 2 of that law establishes that it is not for the government to control teaching in ecclesiastical seminaries and that of religion, since for these the provisions contained in Art. 20 of the Concordat with the Holy See of May 7, 1940 apply. Physical education, singing and the entire education of women are controlled by the Inspectorate of Private Instruction and by the following associations: Portuguese Youth, Portuguese Feminine Youth, the Work of Mothers OMEN and School Visitors. Art. 3 of Law 2033 further establishes that the Inspectorate must watch over the manner in which female pupils are educated, requiring that education be oriented toward the preservation of the virtues of woman and of the domestic hearth. To this end the School Visitors are permitted to supervise and guide the educational activity within the pupils' own families.

The entire private and government school system comprises kindergartens for children from 3 to 6 years of age, elementary schools from 7 to 11 years of age, secondary schools and the following universities: Coimbra, founded in 1291, Oporto, founded in 1762, Lisbon, founded in 1911. Upon finishing elementary school the pupil may choose the following types of school: Ensino primario complementar biennale, Ensino commercial elementar quadriennale, Ensino tecnico elementar quadriennale, Escola de agronomia quadriennale, Liceus centrais or Liceus nacionais quinquennale. Having completed his studies in one of these types of school he may proceed to the Ensino commercial secundario, the Ensino tecnico secundario, to Letras, Ciencias or the Magisterio primario. Having obtained the diploma he proceeds from Letras to the University, from Ciencias to the Higher Technical Institute, from the Magisterio primario to the Escola normal superior, from the Ensino commercial secundario to the Institute of Economic and Financial Sciences, from the Ensino tecnico secundario to the Technical Institute. The instruction of the Catholic clergy takes place in 9 minor seminaries, in 5 major seminaries and in 10 plena seminaries; at the Higher Colonial School in Lisbon, since Sept. 30, 1946, by virtue of Law 35,885, instruction in Catholic missiology has been given. - See pl. CXXII.

Miroslav Stumpf