PERÙ

**PERU — I. Geography.** — It is the largest (1,250,000 sq. km.) but not the most populous (8.2 million inhabitants; 7 per sq. km.) of the Andean states.

The territory comprises a coastal region about 2,000 km. long, with a dry climate and, in the south, a veritably desert aspect; the Sierra, which is the most important part of the country, consisting of alignments of high mountain ranges (6,765 m. at Nevado de Huascarán), separated by high plateaus and deep valleys; and the Montana, sloping down to the Amazonian lowlands, covered by impenetrable equatorial forest. Seventy per cent of the population lives in the Sierra, where the main centres are situated at altitudes varying from 2,300 to 3,360 m. (Cerro de Pasco, at 4,300 m., is one of the highest in the world); 25 per cent on the coast, enlivened by the growing development of irrigation; the remainder in the Montana. Of this population, half are Amerindians, the rest mestizos, creoles, negroes and mulattos. There are relatively numerous Asians (23,000 Japanese and 7,000 Chinese); Italians number about 15,000.

Peru is a country with wide agricultural and mining possibilities, but for a long time it has suffered from a lack of capital, labour and political stability, although recently it has been moving towards a certain economic recovery, to which Italians have contributed and continue to contribute in a substantial measure. Agriculture yields a variety of products (cotton, sugar cane, rice, coffee, citrus fruits, vines, fruit, etc.), but cereals are insufficient for domestic consumption. Rubber is in decline; the cultivation of coca (from which cocaine is extracted) is notable. Little is yet obtained from the forest (due to communication difficulties); livestock raising is moderate (especially sheep, llamas and alpacas); fishing along the coast, rich in plankton and therefore in fish, is developing continuously (recent establishment of canning factories). From the subsoil are extracted petroleum (2 million tons in 1949), copper, silver, lead, iron, coal, vanadium, bismuth, etc.; along the coast are the famous guano deposits. Industry is still on a scale quite inadequate to the prospects; so too is commerce.

The capital, Lima (750,000 inhabitants), is the only centre with a population exceeding 100,000; Callao (90,000).

The official religion of the Peruvian Empire consisted mainly in a solar cult. The Sun, the deity of the Inca clan, was represented on earth by the Emperor. The Sun was accorded the principal honours in a solemn ceremony that took place, above all, at the solstices and equinoxes.

The solar cult included several deities that personified celestial bodies. The most important were the Moon, wife and sister of the Sun; Pitua, the Sun’s eldest son, who represented the planet Jupiter, considered the abode of the blessed; Chasca, corresponding to the planet Venus, depicted as a youth with long curly hair, acting as the Sun’s page, now preceding, now following it in the sky. The Pleiades, regarded as regulators of moisture, were particularly venerated in December: prayers were addressed to them to send rain upon the sown fields. The god of lightning, Catequil, revered for his three aspects of flash, thunder and lightning, was represented as a serpent, with or without feathers, and was one of the Sun’s ministers. This god belonged to a very ancient stratum of Peruvian religion; probably his cult had, in the most distant times, required human sacrifices.

---

**1- CHACHAPOYASENSIS**

**2- DE S GABRIELE A VIRGINE PERDOLENTE DE MARANON**

| km | 0 | 100 | 200 | 300 | 400 |
| 0 | 80 | | | | |

---

**Peru — 1) State boundary; 2) ecclesiastical circumscription boundary; 3) railway.**

---

Talara (15,000) and Mollendo (14,000) are the main ports. Peru is a unitary republic with a representative government and a bicameral legislature; the president is elected every six years. The country is divided into 24 departments. The Catholic religion is the state religion; pagans are still numerous in the interior.

**

---

**II. RELIGION.** — The Inca conquerors underwent in religion the influence of the countries they conquered and assimilated much of their culture. There thus resulted, as a natural consequence of the fusion with the various pre-Inca civilizations, a kind of religious syncretism.

---

Very ancient in origin is the cult of two deities, Viracocha and Pachacamac, a cult so deeply felt by the natives that the conquering Incas not only admitted them into the official religion but accorded the gods themselves great importance. A myth told that from the Sun and the Moon were born three sons, Viracocha, Pachacamac and Manco Capac: the first two obtained from their father dominion over the heavens, the third and his descendants received the empire of the world. According to scholars, Pachacamac originally would have been the Supreme Being of the Chimu, a people who settled in the Peruvian region at a very remote epoch. No cult was paid to this god: he was the indefinable or, simply, “He who is.” His name could be pronounced only in a low voice, bowing the head and making particular gestures. Human affairs were regulated by him through eternal laws, from which no one could escape. In ancient times he had destroyed humanity; then he had created a better one. Other deities of very remote origin were: Mamapacha, the earth mother; Waku, the water; Nina, the fire; Uayra, the wind. Also venerated were great mountains, great rivers and various plants and animals.

In addition to the higher deities, the Incas venerated certain things, objects and places, generically called huacas (or also huilicas). There were stationary and movable huacas. The former included temples, tombs of ancestors, places associated with memories of mythological personages or of dead Inca emperors, battlefields, hills, caves, palaces, prisons, houses, meeting places, bridges, quarries; the most common huacas were springs and rocks. A special type of huaca was the Apacita, a pile of stones marking some critical point along roads (e.g., passes) before which travellers would pause to make offerings and pray. Among the movable huacas were images and amulets used for different purposes: some represented human beings, others animals. Huacas also included corpses and unusual and exceptional things, such as ears of special maize, stones of unusual shape or colour, crystals, etc.; twins, persons with six fingers and those born feet first. Every Inca emperor had a personal guardian, whom he called brother: this person was generally considered a movable huaca. Perhaps other men too could have personal guardians. It is not entirely clear whether the Indians believed in the existence of supernatural beings distinct from the objects in which they resided or whether they regarded the object itself as a supernatural being. The latter hypothesis, however, is the more probable.

The highest religious authority was the sovereign (called the Inca), a living god and head of the priests. In his religious functions, he was assisted by the vila Huma, chosen from among his closest relatives (usually brothers or uncles). The other priests were divided, according to their duties, into sacrificers, diviners, hermits, mediums, etc. They were not organized into colleges. Only certain women, the huas a or virgins of the sun, were gathered into a particular institution. They were chosen from noble maidens and from commoners of exceptional beauty. At the age of eight, they were confined to convents where they remained for life. A solemn vow obliged them to chastity and to avoid seeing men except the sons of the sun; if they broke the vow—which almost never happened—they were subject to the death penalty, which could also be extended to their lover and relatives. The huas attended to the service of the temple of Cuzco and, in particular, kept the sacred fire burning perpetually; they wove fabrics for the emperor, prepared the sacred bread, and made the sora for the worship ceremonies. Among the huas, the emperor could choose some concubines. Religious practices, in addition to prescribed rituals, consisted of prayers—individual or collective—fasting, pilgrimages, and the confession of sins. Faith in an afterlife was deeply felt. In accordance with this belief, objects—often of value—were placed in the tomb alongside the deceased to serve them in the life to come. In the realm of the dead, nobles and commoners had separate dwellings. Many temples, including the famous one in Cuzco, stood throughout the empire.

Tullio Tentori

III. HISTORY

In 1529, Charles V granted P. Pizarro (q.v.) permission to explore, occupy, and settle new lands south of Panama, beyond the Biru River (or Peru), just south of the Bay of San Miguel (7° 34' N.), granting the conqueror broad freedom of movement in those unexplored regions.

The history of Peru before the arrival of Pizarro and his men eludes all inquiry due to the lack of sources, the destruction wrought by the conquerors, and the bias of the first Spanish chroniclers who accompanied Pizarro or immediately succeeded him. Among these, the only exception—though not entirely above rigorous criticism—is the chronicle of Girolamo Benzoni, a Milanese who reached those lands around 1541. The Spaniards thus came into contact with the Empire of the Incas, whose name in the local language was Tahuantinsuyu, meaning the "Four Regions": the western (Cuntisuyu), the northern (Chinchaysuyu), the southern (Collasuyu), and the eastern (Antisuyu), encompassing a territory far larger than present-day Peru.

The capital of this state, ruled by the Sapa Inca, or "sole lord," was Cuzco, said in indigenous legend to have been founded by Manco Capac.

From Cuzco, through various vicissitudes, the empire extended to the Pacific and then, gradually, as far as present-day Pasto (in Colombia) and southward into Argentina at the time of the Inca Huayna Capac. This is the tradition, but modern scholarship holds that the founding of Cuzco and the preeminence attained by the Inca Empire should be attributed to the cohesion of certain members of the privileged caste from which the expansionist movement of the entire nation developed. The reasons for the decline of the Inca Empire, aside from the military activity of the conquerors, are also to be found in the civil war between the last two Incas, Huáscar and Atahualpa, sons of Huayna Capac—a conflict that greatly facilitated the arrival of the Spaniards. From Cuzco, the Sapa Incas extended their dominion over surrounding tribes, defeating them and relocating the subjected populations to different areas from their original homelands, thereby mingling tribes from various regions. In this way, the Incas (that is, the ayllu that provided the civil and military leaders of the empire) were able to expand the territory under their control while also strengthening the imperial lineage, power later passing to the Hanan-Cuzco branch following a palace revolution. It can be estimated that the Inca Empire lasted about two and a half centuries, ending with Pizarro’s execution of Atahualpa in 1533.

The most significant archaeological discoveries in Peru range from the area between the 4th and 17th southern parallels, from the basin of the Marañón River (north) to the course of the Desaguadero River (south), indicating that territorial expansion had occurred in all directions. Although it cannot be determined how the cultural and social level of the entire Inca imperial complex was achieved, it is certain that the civilization found in the central zone was far superior to that of the surrounding peoples, as evidenced by the road system radiating from Cuzco in all directions; the succession of waystations; the organization of messengers; the rope bridges that spanned deep gorges and rapid rivers; the construction of dry-stone or mortar-built structures; the organization of the army; the cult of the dead; the veneration of the Sun, to which temples of incomparable richness and splendor were erected; the agricultural customs of the Sapa Inca; the obligation for all to work the fields and the distribution of harvests; and the pottery and weaving. However, there were significant gray areas: the lack of strong pack animals other than the llama; the absence of wheeled vehicles and the wheel itself; the lack of iron; and, most importantly, the absence of writing, which was not replaced by the quipu, a mnemonic system of recording information through knots in cords.

Peru – Cloisters of the Jesuit fathers’ college. Hispano-Indigenous art (1738) – Lima.

Mam

The population was organized into a kind of agricultural collectivism whereby, from members of the dominant caste down to the humblest subject, all worked the land—the primary source of national wealth—and then devoted themselves to the arts, crafts, or military service. The great merit of Inca agricultural organization lay in its design and construction of terrace systems and graded slopes to exploit every inch of soil to the fullest.

Private and political life within the vast Inca organization was based on the *ayllu*, a complex of leading families placed under a single command, sharing a common totem and a defined tract of land to cultivate. The union of various *ayllus*, due to the expansion of arable land and the growth of agricultural labor, led to the tribe, which, when united with others, formed a district governed by a chief; the subordination of these to the Inca inevitably resulted in the confederation of four regions, each ruled by a royal delegate of the Inca and directly dependent on the Sapa Inca.

Annually, the distribution of land to the *ayllus* was regulated, and at harvest time the yield was divided among families after deducting the portions owed to the Sun temples, the Inca, and the state. While meadows and forests belonged to the *ayllus*, herds and mines were the Inca’s domain. Public works were carried out jointly by all the *ayllus* in a region.

The military organization mirrored the civil structure. The Sapa Inca, or a close relative, served as supreme commander of the army, transmitting orders through a hierarchy of officers to the troops. The weapons used—all wooden with metal tips—were slings, arrows, lances, clubs, swords, and iron maces. Great care was taken of the troops: while looting was strictly forbidden, a network of supply depots had been established even at the empire’s furthest reaches. In addition to ordinary roads and bridges, military roads and bridges were built and maintained in perfect condition.

On 24 September 1532, the Inca era ended and Peruvian history in the proper sense began, Pizarro (v.). After an initial period marked by adventurer-conquerors, the Spanish colonial system took hold. It recognized as tiny towns the sites of military detachments, divided the territory into *repartimientos*, and later, after confirmation to the heirs of the first Spanish grantees, into *encomiendas*. These grants consistently relied on masses of indigenous labor for public agricultural works, to their severe detriment. Charles V, also through ecclesiastical intercession, issued the New Laws in 1542; applied arbitrarily, they gained particular force after the discovery of rich deposits of gold, silver, and mercury (1544–1545).

The rapid development of industry, besides spawning new cities such as Potosí and Huancavelica, increased the demand for indigenous labor, which, despite protests from some viceroys and many local notables, was exploited brutally until 1742. With the abolition of the *corregidores* (a kind of administrative official), Peru was divided into eight intendancies, each headed by a Spanish official directly subordinate to the viceroy. Trade was monopolized by the *Universidad de Mercatores* of Lima, while in Spain only Castilians were initially authorized to trade with Peru; from 1775 all Spaniards were permitted. Full commercial freedom between the mother country and Peru was not achieved until 1808.

The ideological movement stemming from the rise of the United States and the French Revolution influenced the liberal and educated classes of Latin America, sparking a series of uprisings that led to the secession of the various Spanish colonies. Yet in the closed and nearly inaccessible Peru, these innovative ideas took hold only after a column of Argentines and Chileans under the Liberator General San Martín landed on the coast and proclaimed independence (28 July).

On 3 August, San Martín was appointed Supreme Dictator; the following month he transferred his powers to Congress, which quickly elected José de la Riva Agüero the first president of the new Republic. Spanish resistance hindered Peruvian developments until the battles of Ayacucho—won by General Sucre, Bolívar’s lieutenant, on 9 December 1824 against the viceroy La Serna—and Callao (22 January 1826) definitively broke II. Madrid accepted the fait accompli only later. The desire to restore the new Republic’s borders to their former historical extent—including Upper Peru (Bolivia)—and Bolívar’s aspiration to create a confederation of Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia with a single capital came to nothing. Instead, the region endured years of confusion and turmoil marked by repeated disorders and abuses, lasting until 1845, when the new Republic could at last embark on a path of economic and civil progress: the first railway lines were inaugurated, telegraph service was organized, public works were vigorously promoted, and the internal debt was consolidated. On 10 November 1860, a new Constitution was promulgated that clearly separated economic, legislative, and judicial powers, abolished the death penalty, and suppressed ecclesiastical and military tithes and privileges.

Peru’s prosperity and progress were interrupted partly by a war against Spain, in which Chile also participated (1866), and more gravely by the “War of the Pacific,” fought by Peru and Bolivia against Chile from 1879 to 1884 and concluded only on 30 April 1895. After these events, national life resumed its uninterrupted rhythm, leading to the present day.

IV. EVANGELIZATION

At the first military reconnaissance of Peru in 1524, the secular priest Fernando de Luque participated alongside Pizarro and Almagro; in 1527, Pizarro explored the country together with the Franciscan Marco da Nizza and the cleric Alfonso di Molina. During his campaign of 1523 to reconnoitre the territory, he brought with him from Spain, under the leadership of Reginaldo di Pedrazza (v. PANAMA), six Dominicans, including Fr. Vincenzo Vavrelde, who, appointed Bishop of Cuzco (1536), was consecrated in Spain and, on his return, brought with him more Dominicans. Charles V named him “Protector of the Indians.” In 1541, he was massacred by the Indians on the island of Puna (Ecuador). In 1534, the Dominicans founded their first convent in Cuzco in the Temple of the Sun, which had been given to them by Pizarro after the conquest of the city. In 1553, the Dominican Province of Lima was erected, with eighteen convents; by 1565, there were more than one hundred Dominicans in Peru.

Equally active were the twelve Franciscans, who, under the superior Marco da Nizza—companion of Pizarro in 1527—went to that land. Among the Franciscan missionaries, the lay brother Matteo di Xumilla and St. Francis Solano distinguished themselves. In 1555, the Franciscan Custody of Peru was erected, which in 1550 had fifteen houses; in 1553, it was transformed into a province, counting eighteen houses. Their work took place among colonists and Indians. The Mercedarians claim that their brethren, around 1534, in the number of twenty-four, were the first to evangelize Peru. After having given the Church of Peru some good bishops, their activity ceased in the country. The Augustinians also preached the Gospel to the Peruvians from 1550 onwards. Among them, the Fathers Garcia and Ortiz distinguished themselves, obtaining from the last prince of the Incas permission to preach, erect chapels, open schools, and finally having the joy of baptizing him with the name of Philip. After Cuzco, Lima was also erected as a diocese in 1541, and on 20 January 1545 as an archdiocese; on 12 March 1546, it was transformed into a metropolitan see, and in 1572 into a primatial see. The first bishop, and later archbishop, was the Dominican Girolamo da Loaysa. Among his successors, St. Toribio de Mogrovejo (1579–1606) is especially notable for his pastoral and missionary activity, which earned him the title of Apostle of Peru. He held ten diocesan synods and provincial councils; three times he visited his diocese, penetrating as far as the Andean forests; he founded a printing press and published a catechism.

In 1551, the University of Lima was founded, the first on the American continent. Peru, with St. Rose of Lima, has given the Church its first American saint. The Jesuits joined the other missionaries in 1568, immediately founding churches and schools in almost all the cities, and in 1577 a seminary for missions at Juli, on the shores of Lake Titicaca. By 1582, the Jesuit Province of Peru already numbered 1,333 members. In 1572, the Jesuits took on the mission among the Indians. Fathers Samaniego and Martinez established the famous mission of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, where in a short time more than 10,000 were baptized. In 1580, only three years after the beginning of the missions, fifty Jesuits preached in Indian languages, whereas ordinarily in other missions of the time preaching was often carried out through interpreters. The Jesuits, often at the risk of their lives, sought to draw the Indians from the forests into Christian centres. In 1690 and 1710, they succeeded in obtaining from the viceroys the prohibition of the Indian slave trade. With the mission among the Moxos, whom they gathered into six reductions, they brought Christianity to the borders of the country. Towards the end of the 1620s, the Jesuits Arlet and Borin were in Peru, evangelizing the Canichanas. After the expulsion of the Jesuits (1767), their missions passed to the secular clergy, but steadily declined. The struggle for independence against Spain first, then the civil wars and the dominance of Freemasonry in the 19th century were disastrous for the Church and the missions. In 1849, the Franciscans were able to revive their mission at Ocopa. But only in 1900, following the invitation of Leo XIII in 1895, at the request of the regional bishops and in full agreement with the government, Propaganda created three new apostolic prefectures for the Indians of the mountainous regions of the interior: namely, that of Ucayali, entrusted to the Franciscans; that of Urubamba, given to the Dominicans; and that of San León de los Amazones, to the Augustinians.

V. ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION.
— According to the Annuario Pontificio, 1952 (p. 1217), it is constituted by 4 metropolitan sees, 11 suffragan dioceses, 4 apostolic vicariates, 2 apostolic prefectures, and 1 prelature nullius.

1. Metropolitan Sees:
1) AREQUIPA (15 April 1577; metropolitan 23 May 1943), with the suffragans: PUNO (7 October 1861); TACNA (18 December 1944);
2) CUSCO (5 September 1536; metropolitan 23 May 1943), with the suffragan: HUAMANGA-AYACUCHO (20 July 1609);
3) LIMA (14 May 1541; metropolitan 12 February 1546), with the suffragans: HUÁNUCO (17 March 1856); HUARAZ (8 May 1899); HUANCAVELICA (18 December 1884); HUANCAYO (18 December 1884); ICA (18 December 1946);
4) TRUJILLO (15 June 1577; metropolitan 23 May 1943), with the suffragans: CAJAMARCA (5 April 1908); CHACHAPOYAS (formerly MAYNAS 1805; current name 4 July 1943); PIURA (20 February 1940) and the prelature nullius: MOYOBAMBA (7 March 1948).

2. Apostolic Vicariates: IQUITOS (1 August 1945); PUERTO MALDONADO (10 March 1949); SAN GABRIEL DE LA DOLOROSA DEL MARAÑÓN (3 June 1936); UCAYALI (14 July 1925).

3. Apostolic Prefectures: SAN FRANCISCO SAVERIO (11 January 1946); SAN GIUSEPPE DELLE AMAZZONI (13 July 1945).

VI. LEGAL STATUS OF THE CHURCH

Article 232 of the Constitution of 9 April 1933 declares that, in accordance with the sentiments of the majority of the people, the State protects the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, while other religions enjoy freedom for the exercise of their respective cults. Article 233 recalls the exercise of the right of patronage. This right, which many countries born from the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire claim from the Holy See, invoking—not entirely justly—the patronage conceded to the Spanish Kings by Pope Julius II in the bull of 8 December 1498 and in the Universalis Ecclesiae of 28 July 1508, Peru derives instead from the apostolic letters of 3 March 1874. With these letters, Pius IX granted to the President of the Republic and his successors the enjoyment of the right of patronage, on condition that ecclesiastical goods be left to the clergy and administered with diligence and fidelity, and that the Peruvian government favour and protect the Catholic religion. Therefore, the designation of archbishops and bishops is carried out as follows: from a double list of three priests to be promoted (three from the diocese or archdiocese in question and three from another diocese: law of 1874), who must be Peruvians by birth (Article 235 of the Constitution), one is chosen to be presented to the Pope.

Article 234 provides for the stipulation of a concordat with the Holy See—a concordat which is probably delayed by two facts: the impossibility of maintaining the right of patronage, at least in its current form, since it is now a principle enshrined in concordat law that the Church freely chooses its shepherds; and the existence of divorce, introduced in Peru in 1931.

Diplomatic relations are maintained through the Apostolic Nuncio in Lima and the ambassador accredited to the Holy See.

VII. LITERATURE: V. HISPANO-AMERICAN LITERATURE.

VIII. Art

The territory of Peru possesses the most important archaeological evidence of the cultures of the Andean region, both from the prehistoric American era and from the protohistoric period. In quality, these are not inferior to those of the Mexican and Maya cultures (v.), with which they are ideally connected, although contacts were few and rare, and it seems more accurate to speak of analogies and similarities due to shared origins and contemporaneous development.

The area of Andean cultures encompasses the vast territory over which the Incas extended their dominion, extending beyond the current borders of Peru into the Bolivian region around Lake Titicaca. Indeed, the remains from the sites of Tiahuanaco, Pirapi, and Sallustani cannot be separated from those of the Peruvian region around the same lake and the valley of the Hurubamba River, as they belong to the same system and feature identical themes and decorative motifs. For the sake of clarity in presentation, without delving into the lively debates that have divided scholars seeking to establish the priority of coastal cultures over those of the highlands and jungle, or vice versa, the traditional distinction will be accepted. The monuments of the so-called Chimú civilization, which flourished in the northern part of the coastal region, will be analyzed. According to Spanish chroniclers, the Kingdom of Chimor came to an end due to the Inca invasion around a century before the conquest. Its impressive remains include the city of Chanchan, built in the fertile plain between the Chicanama and Moche rivers, near the present-day city of Trujillo, during the period from 800 to 1000 AD.

The vast extent of the ruins, covering over 15 square kilometers, suggests that it was the capital of the kingdom. It is divided with perfect topographical planning into four walled districts, enclosed by sturdy walls, with low rectangular houses interspersed with large earthen platforms. On these terraces stand temples and dwellings for dignitaries and priests, with facades spanning several dozen meters and reaching heights of up to five meters.

The construction material used is sun-dried clay, which, in the arid climate, achieves a stony hardness. The devastation wrought by time and treasure hunters, who have literally crumbled many structures, makes it difficult to form an adequate impression of the site as a whole. The constructive genius of these peoples is revealed not only in the geometric precision with which walls, entrances, and gables are squared and leveled but also in the complex and advanced irrigation systems that supplied water to gardens and orchards surrounding the city. Traces of the original ornamentation remain scarce. Stuccoes and frescoes once adorned both exteriors and interiors. The prevailing taste favored minute figurations, with geometric patterns similar to those found on pottery and textiles, or stylized fish and birds. The monotony of repetition is avoided through remarkably skillful asymmetrical alternation.

At the southern extremity of the Chimú kingdom, in a location now called "La Fortaleza," atop a hill terraced according to contour lines and each surrounded by a high wall of sun-dried clay, stands the fortress of Paramonga. Four prominently projecting bastions guard the corners. The defensive technique revealed in the complex of structures (the fortress is surrounded by small dwellings connected by narrow passageways) is extraordinarily advanced compared to that of other peoples.

Primitive; the fortress resisted the assault of the Incas, and it was only the great Pachacutec who overcame it at the beginning of the 15th century. To the south of the Chimú kingdom, along the Peruvian coast, other cultures developed from very ancient times until their encounter with Inca civilization. Notable discoveries were made in the valleys of Ancon, Chancay, and Rimac: here, the major ruins of Pachacamac feature walls that once bore splendid polychrome frescoes, of which only insignificant traces remain. Further south, in the territory of the ancient Chincha confederation, lies the heartland of the culture known as Ica or Nasca, which flourished between 900 and 1400. It was the first to be encountered by the Inca conquerors. The ruins of La Centinela, the most important in the area, clearly attest to the succession of pre-Inca and Inca cultures and the frequent exchanges between the coast and the highlands. The presence of niches both outside and inside the masonry structures links these constructions to those of the Urubamba valley.

It is unnecessary to proceed further south, for although there are reports of very ancient cultures that flourished along the entire coast up to the Chilean border, archaeological findings have thus far revealed nothing artistically significant beyond ceramic or textile artifacts, particularly from the Paracas peninsula.

The Peruvian highlands, around Lake Titicaca and in the upper valley of its outlet, the Urubamba River, at exceptional altitudes nearing 4,000 meters, contain one of the most fascinating and evocative archaeological zones in the world.

In Bolivian territory, Tiahuanaco boasts the marvelous Sun Gate, designed and carved with exceptional sense of proportion, whose decoration constitutes the masterpiece of Inca sculpture. Viracocha, the creator god, is represented hieratically, surrounded by stylized symbols of his earthly manifestations. Also in Bolivian territory, at Pirapi and Sallustani, are the finest examples of the characteristic chullpas—circular funerary towers built by the Incas from perfectly squared basalt blocks and crowned by a projecting cornice of stone slabs. They feature doorways without lintels or jambs leading to the inner chamber, devoid of any decoration.

The capital of Inca civilization was the city of Cuzco. Here, ancient constructions served as foundations for buildings erected by the Spanish conquerors; the city’s streets today present a picturesque appearance due to the contrast between the ancient, unmortared stone paving and the white plaster of the superstructures.

The ancient city had a regular layout, with narrow, paved streets. Accounts by Spanish chroniclers speak of the fabulous decorations of the religious buildings that once stood there. The Temple of the Sun, the largest in the city, was lavishly adorned with gold. Other temples were dedicated to the moon, stars, thunder, lightning, and the rainbow. Near Cuzco stand the ruins of Tampumachay. At Kenko, semicircular ruins of an amphitheater have been found, its center marked by a large carved stone depicting a puma. North of Cuzco, the ruins of a fortress with angular spurs and descending terraces survive at Sacsahuamán; the summit of the hill is occupied by the celebrated and mysterious staircase carved from the living rock, known by the misnomer "Throne of the Incas." The strength of its structures and the acute-angled bastions, arranged with masterful military intuition, made it one of the strongholds during the civil war among the conquerors. Another fortress, protecting the sacred valley of the Urubamba, stands at Ollantaytambo, notable for its niches, similar to those at La Centinela.

At Pisac, 80 km northeast of Cuzco, the complex of semicircular fortifications and temples attests to the degree of perfection achieved by Inca architects during the most splendid period of their civilization, between the 14th century and the early 15th. The large stone blocks are fitted together with meticulous precision: even though the copper clamps that once held them together have been removed, the walls remain perfectly plumb. Despite the Incas’ ignorance of iron and their lack of pulleys and other tools common to European craftsmen, the windows and the smoothed corners of the stones are perfectly level. One of the most singular structures in this complex is the Intihuatana, with its elliptical platform, which is believed to have served as an astronomical observatory.

The ruined city of Machu Picchu, 80 km northwest of Cuzco, situated over 3,000 meters above sea level on one of the many mountains carved by the Urubamba River, inaccessible by other routes, and discovered only in

1911 by Hiram Bingham, offers, due to the perfect preservation of its monuments—untouched by treasure hunters—the highest example of Inca art and urban planning. The city is built to conform to the irregularities of the terrain and divided into sections, seemingly according to a precise hierarchy that scholars have sought to determine. To the northwest, the religious center occupied the most prominent position. Private dwellings are arranged on the outskirts; and in all directions, through terraces, walls, and enclosures, space was gained from the mountain’s sheer drops to erect houses, gardens, and orchards. No primitive culture displays, like that of the Incas, such wisdom in adapting to the terrain or such high capacity for exploitation and organization. Yet unlike the artists of Aztec and Maya civilizations, Inca builders did not elaborate fanciful decorations: they seem concerned only with solving practical problems and structural needs. Bound to the earth, as one scholar notes, they did not trouble themselves to communicate their own sentiments; the soul of the Incas, like their art, remains hermetic, despite countless attempts to penetrate and comprehend II.
Andean sculpture is sparse. The most important finds are the monolith of Cerro Sechín (highland Peru) and the Raimondi Stela from Chavín de Huántar (central Peru), which offer examples of highly refined and intricate carved decoration on anthropomorphic themes. The stylization reduces figurative elements to a flat plane, using a technique akin to that of vase ornamentation.

Andean ceramics, by contrast, has no rival in the American continent for originality of form and refinement of design and execution; it may even stand comparison with the finest Greek and Italic production. It is impossible here to distinguish the countless varieties of styles—from Moche, Chimú, Nasca, Tiahuanaco, to those of the southern coast and the highlands. One can only provide a few examples of the most distinctive styles: the Moche (500–800 AD), characterized by original and realistic portraits, and classical Inca (14th–15th century), of which an aryballos with typical vertical bands is published. Weavers and goldsmiths produced high-quality artifacts, mainly in the central coastal zone, widely distributed throughout the empire.

During the colonial period, the Spanish built structures in Trujillo and Cuzco according to the artistic trends of the mother country. Soon, however, the enduring influence of indigenous tradition affected artisans and artists, particularly in decorative motifs—sometimes of fine craftsmanship, such as those at the Jesuit seat in Cuzco (second half of the 16th century) or at the convent of Santo Domingo in the same city. In the centuries that followed, Spanish-colonial art developed regularly, with exchanges and borrowings among all the nations of South America, though it produced no monuments of exceptional significance.

IX. SCHOOL SYSTEM

Article 25, Title III of the Peruvian Constitution stipulates that all persons who meet the legal requirements of competence and morality may direct educational institutions of any level or teach in them. The state holds the right to oversee all educational activity through the National Council of Education, reorganized in 1907 and subordinate to the Central Office of Education. It is the state’s duty, under the reform of José Pardo (1905), to provide free of charge all elementary school students with books, notebooks, and pencils. Every student must be guided toward the pursuit of beauty, truth, goodness, and justice.

The entire school system, based on psychotechnics and school medicine, includes elementary, secondary, and higher schools. The latter comprise: the University of San Agustín in Arequipa, founded in 1821; the University of San Marcos in Lima, founded in 1571; the University of San Antonio Abad in Cuzco, founded in 1598; the University of San Tomás y Santa Rosa in Trujillo, founded in 1835; and the Catholic University of Lima, founded in 1917 and canonically established in 1942.

Schools dependent on Catholic missions include: 9 catechism and prayer schools, 103 elementary schools, 3 lower secondary schools, 9 vocational schools, and 1 teacher training school. Clerical education is conducted in 1 preparatory school, 2 minor seminaries, and 8 major seminaries. — See pl. LXXX.