SACRED ORATORY. - The oral presentation of Christian truths, delivered by those who have the authority to do so, for the purpose of calling the hearers to faith or to the practice of the moral law.
I. OBJECT OF SACRED ORATORY
It is indicated by Christ Himself: "Go ye into the whole world and preach the Gospel..." (Mk. 16:15); "Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you" (Mt. 28:20). St. Thomas, expanding on the content—though comprehensive yet succinct—of these two passages, writes: "Preachers must enlighten regarding what is to be believed, direct in action, indicate what is to be avoided, and, now threatening, now exhorting, preach to men" (*Comment. in Mt.*, V). The Council of Trent adds: "Announcing to them the vices they must avoid and the virtues they must practice" (Sess. V, can. 2; cf. also Pius IX, encyclical of 9 Nov. 1846).The propagation and preservation of the Gospel is entrusted essentially to the living, spoken word rather than to writing or other means. Christ left nothing in writing; the Apostles considered preaching their particular task (cf. *Acts* 6:3) as an indispensable means of apostolate: "Faith comes by hearing" (*Rom* 10:14 ff.). What the Apostles and disciples wrote was only to supplement the living word. The ordinary subject matter of sacred oratory consists of the Creed and the Decalogue, the precepts of the Church and the Sacraments, the virtues and vices, the duties proper to different classes of persons, the last things of man, and other eternal truths (cf. *Motu proprio Sacrorum antistitum* of Leo XIII, 31 July 1894). Accidental and as it were an external envelope is the manner of presenting dogmas, explaining them as far as possible through reasoning, discerning their coordination, their adaptation to every age, and the increase in good that they bring to individuals and to society. The sacred oratory of today, in its essential content, is the same as that of the earliest times of the Church; the truths of faith proclaimed in succession up to the present day are nothing other than an explication of what was already contained, though implicitly, in the earliest Creeds.
The source of sacred oratory is Holy Scripture, which contains in an eminent way the word of God, completed and authentically interpreted by divine-apostolic Tradition; hence are added the infallible decisions of the Holy See and of Ecumenical Councils, and those—though not infallible—of provincial councils and diocesan synods. A derived source is theological teaching, when it expounds not opinions but truths of faith, as contained in the sources mentioned above.
II. RIGHT AND DUTY OF PREACHING
The right to preach the word of God belongs primarily to the hierarchy, as successors of the Apostles. The Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV, can. 4) declares anathema whoever says that the ministers of the Gospel are not the successors of the Apostles, or that they do not have the same power as they did. The same Council (Sess. V, can. 2) condemns those who say that the word of God is to be preached only by those who are not in sin. The Church has always recognized the right of preaching to the hierarchy alone, even though in the past some heretical sects, such as the Waldensians, granted an equal right to the laity. Protestants also claimed an equal right for the laity, connecting themselves thus with the Waldensians; and experience has shown to what confusion and excesses this path can lead.Current legislation (CIC, tit. XX, cann. 1327-51) follows the principle that the office of preaching Catholic doctrine belongs principally to the Roman Pontiff for the universal Church, to bishops for their dioceses (can. 1327 § 1). Bishops have by virtue of their office the duty to preach the Gospel, unless they are legitimately impeded; moreover, besides parish priests, they must be assisted by other suitable persons to discharge fruitfully this office of preaching (can. 1327 § 2).
It is lawful to exercise the office of preaching only for those who have received express commission from the legitimate superior or have obtained an office to which, according to sacred canons, the duty of preaching is attached (can. 1328). For secular clergy and religious, this faculty is granted by the local Ordinary within his territory (can. 1337). For religious, moreover, the license of their own superior is required (can. 1339 § 2).
As regards preaching to religious, to novices, or to persons who, for reasons of service, education, hospitality, or frail health, live night and day in religious houses: if it concerns a clerical exempt religious institute, the faculty to preach is granted according to the constitutions by the competent superior, who may also call upon members of the secular clergy or of other religious institutes, provided they are approved by their own Ordinary or superior (can. 1338 § 1); if it concerns non-exempt religious or a lay religious institute, even if exempt, the faculty to preach is granted by the local Ordinary, to whom must be added, if it concerns nuns subject to regulars, the license of the regular superior; if it concerns a lay religious institute, the assent of the superior (can. 1338 § 2-3). From this it appears that the local Ordinary is by virtue of his office the supreme moderator of preaching in his own territory. To avoid, however, any exaggeration, the CIC recommends that the local Ordinary should not refuse, without grave reason, the faculty to preach to religious presented by their own superior, nor revoke it once granted, and especially not withdraw it wholesale from all the religious of a house (can. 1339 § 1).
Preachers must possess those intellectual and moral qualities that render their word effective; the judgment on such suitability belongs immediately or mediately to the local Ordinary. For intellectual qualities, suitability must be established by examination, which may be imposed even after a faculty has been granted for the first time, if doubts arise (can. 1340). If a priest from outside the diocese is invited to preach, the license of the local Ordinary of the place where the preaching takes place is required, and this must be requested by the local authorities, according to the circumstances (can. 1341). The faculty to preach may be granted only to priests, deacons, and other clerics in particular cases; not to the laity. In recent times, from Pius IX to Pius XI, no pope has failed to issue, either directly or through the Sacred Congregation of the Consistory, detailed and precise regulations regarding preaching. The same solicitude was felt by many saints, who from the Middle Ages to the present day founded religious orders and congregations with the precise aim of providing the Church with excellent preachers.
To the preacher, whoever he may be, can. 1347 prescribes that he must say "what the faithful ought to believe and do to be saved"; it also recommends avoiding profane and abstruse topics that exceed the common capacity of the hearers, and exercising the evangelical ministry not in the persuasions of human culture, nor in the profane and flattering display of empty and pretentious eloquence, but in the manifestation of the spirit and of virtue; not to preach themselves, but Christ crucified. The Sacred Congregation of the Consistory, in a regulation dated 28 June 1917, *Regolamento circa la sacra predicazione*, art. 20, prescribes: "The topics of sermons must be essentially sacred. If a preacher wishes to treat other topics... always however suitable to the House of God, he needs the license of the Ordinary. To all preachers, however, it is absolutely and entirely forbidden to treat of politics in church."
No human authority has the right to prevent preaching itself, as St. Peter and St. John proclaimed before the Sanhedrin: "We cannot but speak the things which we have seen and heard" (*Acts* 4:20); St. Paul asserts that "the word of God is not bound" (*2 Tim* 2:9) and felt within himself the urgent obligation to preach: "Necessity is laid upon me" (*1 Cor* 9:16). On the part of all men there is the obligation to listen frequently to preachers and to put their teachings into practice, since this is a condition for eternal life (can. 1348).
III. ENDS TO BE ACHIEVED AND VARIOUS FORMS OF SACRED ORATORY
From the various classes of persons to whom preaching is directed and from the various circumstances in which preaching takes place, various forms or species of oratory have arisen. Thus bishops deliver their homilies on major feasts, which they may deliver in any church within their territory, but ordinarily they are given in the cathedral. While the bishop is preaching or attending the sermon, he may forbid preaching to take place simultaneously in other places, with the exception of large cities (can. 1343).Thus parish priests give the explanation of the Sunday and feast-day Gospel, which is also called a homily. This is a personal obligation for the parish priest: the omission of the homily may be permitted only on major feasts (can. 1344). It would be desirable for this explanation of the Gospel to be given also at all other Masses celebrated in public: the Ordinary may command this (can. 1346).
In the liturgical seasons, notably in Lent and Advent, the Church desires (can. 1346) that preaching be more frequent, even daily, to give the people a more complete, accurate, and organic vision of the truth. Thus have come about Lenten and Advent series of sermons, some of which are justly famous. The lectures given by the canon theologian (can. 400) will have as their subject the explanation of Holy Scripture or, at the bishop’s discretion, other dogmatic, moral, or apologetic topics. In preparation for annual or periodic events, e.g., the pastoral visitation, tributes, novenas, and octaves have been instituted. Particular dioceses have devoted entire months to a given devotion with preaching: May to the Madonna, June to the Sacred Heart, March to St Joseph, and in some places November to the dead. In many places, slightly modifying the basic arrangements, the forty-hour devotion with corresponding preaching has been instituted. The clergy and religious must, at fixed intervals or on particular occasions (can. 1367 n. 4; 1001; 126; 541; 571; 3; 595; 1; n. 1; 465; 3; 420; 1; n. 7; 2; 231; 1; n. 5), make the spiritual exercises (v.), which are mostly preached, and from this has arisen an entire specialized genre. Following this example, closed retreats are also held for laypeople of both sexes, usually divided by profession, so that the preaching may have a more precise aim and yield more abundant fruit. The Code of Canon Law (can. 1349) has made it obligatory, at least every ten years for each parish, to hold an extraordinary preaching course; these are the Missions (v. MISSIONI INTERNE), which in their institution go back to St Vincent de Paul. Thus preaching is in continual evolution and adaptation to the ever-new demands of the most varied forms of social life. The Church, ever vigilant guardian of the deposit of Revelation, ensures that this deposit is presented accurately to the faithful; it has decreed sometimes very severe penalties (can. 1347; 3; 2-3) against those who proclaim the divine word without adhering to its prescriptions or who even spread errors and scandals.
At certain periods and with magnificent exponents of the episcopate and the priesthood, Christian preaching, for depth of thought, harmony of parts, elegance of language, and warmth of exposition, reached the heights of eloquence, forming a distinct genre in the various literatures: sacred oratory. Like every other genre, however, it has had its peaks and its declines.
IV. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The first indications of preaching properly so called can be found in the apologists (v. APOLOGETICA, LETTERATURA), but its most brilliant manifestation came in the 4th and 5th centuries, when, not without the influence of pagan rhetorical schools, it reached its zenith. Already St Athanasius (v.) in POLITEISMO (v.) in the West began to give illustrious proofs of it; it soon received wider development with St Basil (v.), St Gregory of Nazianzus (v.), St Gregory of Nyssa (v.), and culminated with St John Chrysostom (v.). In the West, preaching perhaps did not attain the formal splendour of the Greek orators, though it was often equal and sometimes superior in content, with St Ambrose (v.), and especially with St Jerome (v.) and St Augustine (v.).
The age that followed already shows a decline. Yet in the East there were no lack of great preachers, from St Cyril of Alexandria (v.) to St John Damascene and others. In the West, St Leo the Great (v.) shone for the solemnity of his eloquence, St Gregory the Great (v.) for the practicality of his teaching, and they are splendidly complemented by St Peter Chrysologus, St Maximus of Turin (v.), Arles (v.), Ennodius of Pavia, and a few others. By the 6th century, sacred oratory may be said to have spread as rhetoric, and preaching itself rarely appears in literature. Spain produced St Isidore of Seville (v.) and England St Bede (v.); but then preachers did not fail, though almost all literary monuments of sacred oratory disappeared, until it revived vigorously with Hugh of St Victor (d. 1141) and his 100 sermons, 19 homilies, and various scriptural lectures, and St Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153) with his 86 sermons on the Song of Songs, 17 on Psalm 90, 67 sermons on the Virgin and several eulogies of saints and homiletic commentaries.
With the formation of new nationalities and the rise of new languages, there emerges what is rightly called popular oratory, prepared by the preaching of St. Dominic of Guzman and St. Francis of Assisi, and continued by their disciples. Of the first, few fragments remain; of the second, a few "admonitions" are preserved in the *Verba aurea S. P. Francisci*. From the Franciscan school, besides St. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, mystic and preacher, grew St. Anthony of Padua (v.), considered the first of the popular preachers: his *Sermons*, which have come down to us in Latin, must have served as material for sermons in the vernacular. Also famous was Berthold of Regensburg (d. 1272), the "Bernard of the 13th century," a popular preacher of Germany.
Among the Dominican school, St. Thomas Aquinas must be remembered, who, like Bonaventure, was both theologian and preacher. In the 14th century, though there were no lack of preachers "of every wind" scourged by Dante (*Par.*, XX), there were also excellent ones: the Blessed Jordan of Pisa (d. 1311), of whom about 200 sermons survive, collected by the usual "cloth shearers"; Agostino of Ancona, successor of St. Bonaventure at the Council of Lyon, and St. Tolentino (v.), both Augustinians; the two Dominicans, Domenico Cavalca and Jacopo Passavanti, of whom a Lenten cycle from 1354 remains, later condensed into the *Specchio di vera penitenza*. Notable also is the preaching of the Blessed John Dominici (d. 1415), Dominican, who composed two Lenten cycles, a Treatise on the Holy Charity, and a Rule for the Governance of Family Care.
But perhaps the highest exponent of popular oratory was St. Bernardino of Siena ([v.] 1380-1446). His school produced the Blessed Albert of Sartiano (d. 1450) and St. John of Capistrano (d. 1456), whose writings have been lost; St. James of the Marches (d. 1479; a Lenten cycle still in manuscript); Michele Carcano (d. 1485; various Lenten cycles) and Michele of Milan (d. 1480; Sermons in the vernacular). Also to be remembered are St. Lawrence Giustiniani, first Patriarch of Venice (d. 1455; Sermons for the various solemnities of the year) and St. Antoninus, Archbishop of Florence (v.). The late 15th century saw Fra Roberto of Lecce, whose Lenten cycle was printed five times during his lifetime, the Blessed Bernardino of Feltre ([v.] d. 1494), and Mariano of Genzano, Augustinian (d. 1498), preachers greatly admired in their time. A rival of St. Vincent Ferrer (d. 1419), who preached throughout Europe during the Great Schism, SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO (v.), Dominican like him, who made Florence the field of his preaching.
Thus we come to the 16th century, when perhaps the greatest fame in Italy TONCHINO (v.), a Capuchin, before his conversion to Protestantism in 1542; but after him, sacred oratory became recherché, with rhetorical tendencies. There were, however, excellent preachers such as Callisto of Piacenza, a Canon Regular; Franceschino Visdomini, a Franciscan of Ferrara (d. 1573), a substantial preacher at times harsh with his audience; Gabriele Fiamma, a Venetian Canon Regular, a distinguished man of letters, superior even to Visdomini in form; Cornelio Musso, of the Conventual Franciscans of Piacenza (d. 1575), Bishop of Bertinoro and Bitonto; Egidio of Viterbo, General of the Augustinians and later cardinal, much admired by his contemporaries. Amid the Catholic Reformation appears St. BORROMEO, EDOARDO (v.), author of 126 homilies in the vernacular, preserved for us in Latin, and 17 sermons for nuns. He defended the Franciscan preacher Alfonso Lupo, condemned for his prophetic threats reminiscent of the style of Savonarola and of Francesco Girolamo Panigarola himself; the latter, a Franciscan, later bishop (1548-94), refined and incisive, proved formidable for his intelligence and memory. Of him are preserved the *Declarations on the Psalms*, the *Lamentations of Jeremiah*, the *Lessons in Catechism for Parish Priests*, a Lenten cycle, the *Panegyrics*, and a Treatise on the Method of Composing a Sermon.
In the 16th century, sacred oratory in other countries also had excellent exponents. In France: the Dominican P. Divolé; G. Fresceau (d. 1575); Richard of Burgundy (d. 1574); J. Fourré of Mainvielliers (d. 1578); G. de Monluc; the Jesuit A. E. de Alleman (1530-91). In Spain and Portugal, treatises on preaching flourished: one may recall the *Ars concionandi* of A. Zorilla (1508-70), the *Methodus concionandi* of A. García Matamoros (1490-1572), and the famous *Ars concionandi* of Fra Diego of Estella. Among the great orators stand out the Franciscan Blessed Louis Sotelo of Seville, later a missionary in Japan; St. Thomas of Villanova, Archbishop of Valencia (d. 1555); Dionigi Vasquez of Toledo; the Dominicans Pasquale De la Fuensanta (d. 1512), Baldassare Sorio of Valencia (d. 1557), Alfonso of Cabrera, court preacher under Philip II and Philip III (d. 1598); the Franciscans A. Guevara (1475-1545) and A. Lopez (d. 1559). Notable also were the Jesuits G. Perpinian and the Blessed Ignatius of Azevedo, killed by the Calvinist Souire with 39 companions; the Franciscan Antonio of St. Mary, later a missionary in China; L. Bolanos, later an evangelizer of the Guarani; the Dominican Bartolomé de las Casas (1474-1566), apostle and defender of the Indians; Luis de León (1527-91), especially for his *Nombre de Cristo*; the Jesuits G. Laínez (d. 1562), later General of his Order, and A. Salmerón (d. 1585), preacher throughout Italy and Provincial of Naples; Gracián Morales (1601-68), author of *El Criticón*; Juan de Ávila, apostle of Andalusia (1500-1569), an orator with the soul of an apostle; Luis de Granada (1504-88), Dominican, a preacher of immense fame in his time, confessor to the Queen of Portugal, author of *The Book of Prayer and Meditation* and *The Guide of Sinners*; Pedro Malón de Chaide, Augustinian (1530-89); St. John of the Cross ([v.] 1542-91), mystic as well as orator with his principal works: *The Ascent of Mount Carmel* and *The Dark Night of the Soul*. In Germany worked B. Arnold of Usingen, Augustinian, with his prophetic preaching (d. 1532); G. Faber, later Bishop of Vienna, called "the hammer of heretics"; the Dominican M. Zittardt of Aix-la-Chapelle, also a writer (d. 1570); the Franciscan G. Wilt, preacher of the cathedral of Mainz (d. 1554); St. Peter Canisius of Nijmegen, called by heretics, playing on his name, "the dog of Austria" (d. 1597); Bernard of Luxembourg, author of the *Sermones de Rosario* (d. 1535). Of other nationalities were the preachers Matteo Bembo, a Jesuit of Posen; C. De Snekis (d. 1531), Dominican, who left 75 sermons on the *Missus est* and four on St. Joseph; A. Holstadius of Louvain (d. 1598).
In the 17th century, sacred oratory was carried away by the rhetorical search for an artificial and paradoxical novelty, in which genuine religious feeling was poorly expressed. Even the titles of sermons reveal the bombast and oddity of the conception; one recalls those of Altogradi, A. Puccinelli, and F. A. Monforte. A typical example of 17th-century oratory is the Jesuit L. Giuglari (d. 1653); more famous for his eccentricities was the Capuchin Emanuele Orchi (d. 1649). But by now the reform of sacred oratory was imminent: its symptoms were felt in the Capuchin G. da Nardi (d. 1631); in the Jesuits L. Fabrizi, T. Reina, G. Ro; later emerged the Jesuits F. M. Spinola, D. Bartoli (d. 1685), and C. A. Cattaneo.
Even in France sacred oratory had degenerated amid the vulgarities and intemperances of the preachers during the Wars of Religion and especially during the League; it was revived at the beginning of the 17th century by the preaching of St Francis de Sales, so that it was able to offer the most luminous examples in Bossuet (q.V. 1627–1704), Bourdaloue (q.V. 1632–1704), Massillon (1663–1742) and Fénelon (q.V. 1651–1715). A second quadrumvirate in the 19th century was formed by Lacordaire (q.V. 1802–61), Félix (q.V. 1810–91), Bougaud (q.V. 1824–88) and Monsabré (q.V. 1835–1907). Around these masters of French oratory deserve mention: Claudius de Lingendes, a Jesuit studied by Bourdaloue himself; St Vincent de Paul (1576–1660), of whom two volumes of Sermons survive; J. Lejeune (d. 1671), a priest of the Oratory; F. Bourgoing (d. 1641), praised by Bossuet; A. Godeau, member of the French Academy; Claudius Joly (d. 1678), noted for his very brief discourses on the Gospel, the famous Prônes; Faure, bishop of Amiens, and Mascaron (d. 1703), rebuked by Louis XIV for his frankness. Of lesser note are L. Cellot (d. 1658), panegyrist, and L. Chrislet of Besançon (d. 1658), noted for his catechism in sixteen lessons. Also worthy of note is O. Bienville (d. 1680) for his Paradis Terrestre or Spiritual Exercises; Bl. Claudius de la Colombière (d. 1682), spiritual director of Margaret Mary Alacoque. Of some value also are A. G. Limoges, the Dominican G. Frédéric du Brabant with six Lenten courses, the Augustinian G. Cortade; the Belgian Van Hoorn of Ghent and Nicholas Stassart, both Augustinians; the Franciscan Yves of Paris (d. 1678); Jacques Bridaine (d. 1676), who held 256 missions; John Billot (d. 1767); Charles Frey de Neville (d. 1774), a brilliant and lively Jesuit who fought strenuously against Voltaire; Abbot L. Poule (d. 1784), member of the Academy, who preached like Fénelon from brief notes; Abbot N. Thyrle de Boismont (d. 1786), N. S. Bergier (d. 1790), a good apologist who opposed Rousseau with Deism Refuted by Itself and Boulanger with Apology of the Christian Religion; G. B. De Beauvais (d. 1790), Abbot Cambacérès (d. 1802). Worthy of consideration are the Jesuits L. A. Cuny (d. 1755), S. Parissault (d. 1753), C. G. Perrin (d. 1767), E. Griffet of Moulins, defender of the Jesuits (d. 1771); François de Ligny (d. 1788), acceptable to the public for his doctrine and conviction in exposition; A. Lenfant of Lyon (d. 1792), preacher in Vienna at the wish of Maria Theresa; F. Nonnette (d. 1799), apologist and opponent of Voltaire. Also noteworthy are J.-J. Olier (d. 1657); Nicolas de Dijon (d. 1694), Capuchin, considered one of the best preachers of the 17th century; P. Richard, known as l’Avocat (d. 1719), preacher and theorist of preaching; V. BIBLICA.: L. Bréhier, Histoire de la philosophie, Paris 1911–14; the annual volumes of the Spiritual Exercises or Retreats): all his preaching centred on the problems of God, society and the order that constitutes II. C. Gibier, preacher in the church of Orléans between 1899 and 1911 and later bishop of Versailles, in his conferences on God, Jesus Christ, the Church and society, displays rigorous logic, interest in social problems. From 1924 to 1937 the conferences at Notre-Dame were given by the Jesuit E. Pinard de la Boullaye, whose Lenten courses all focus on the figure of Jesus Christ, the Messiah, his history, person and legacy. Also a Jesuit is the present preacher at Notre-Dame, Fr Michel Riquet, who after the upheavals of the Second World War has taken up the great tradition of French conferences, grounding them on the trilogy: truth, justice, charity, amid no small measure of assent and dissent; notable are his conferences on wealth and on poverty. To this traditional French oratory must be added the pastoral-social preaching of the bishops, among whom a prominent place is held by Cardinal Suhard, archbishop of Paris. Well known is the great impact made by his 1947 Lenten pastoral letter, The Agony of the Church. It may indeed be said that precisely these pastoral letters, read every year in all churches in preparation for Easter, mark the new direction of sacred oratory.
While the reform of oratorical art was taking place in France, a similar movement began in Italy through the work of Fr Segneri (q.V. 1624–94) and Fr Casini (q.V. 1648–1719). At this time, under the impulse of the Society of Jesus, a new form of preaching arose according to the method of the Spiritual Exercises. In this genre distinguished themselves: G. Agnelli (1621–1706) with his Parroccchiano istruttore, the Lenten Sermons and the Spiritual Exercises; F. Fontana (1673–1713) and especially the younger Segneri (1673–1713), known as Segnerino. There also appeared the scriptural orators with their “scriptural lessons,” such as Angelo Panciocchelli (d. 1680) and Francesco Donzelli (d. 1682).
In the 18th century sacred oratory, though not entirely free from certain Seicento residues, increasingly assumed the character of sacred dignity. Notable are the Capuchin Bernardo M. Ciacco (d. 1744), of whom thirty-three Orations survive, not without artifice but full of fervent imagination and tight dialectic, much celebrated especially for his panegyrics; and, inferior to him, E. Mattioli of Bologna, Albani of Pesaro, Ponti of Ancona, Cagnoli, Vedova, Muti, Tutti and Cardinal Orsini, rich in doctrine but lacking in oratorical vigour. More widely known are the Neapolitan Jesuit Venalesti (d. 1741), rich in images and descriptions; S. Paoli of Lucca (d. 1751) of the Regulars of the Mother of God, who preached at the court of Charles VI in Vienna and in his Advent and Lenten discourses, entitled Sacred-Political Discourses, recalls Casini; E. Manfredi, follower of Segneri’s style; A. Bassani, almost perfect in form; Girolamo Tornielli (1693–1752), Jesuit, preacher and Arcadian poet, rich in great imagination. The first half of the 18th century closes with St Leonard of Port Maurice (1676–1751); mention should also be made of the twenty-three Lenten lectures of F. Incontri, archbishop of Florence. Also worthy of note are the Bl. Antonio Baldinucci of Florence (d. 1717); G. A. Bordoni of Turin; F. Zucconi for his excellent scriptural lessons; P. Sarnelli, Umberto of Conconato, C. Calino and Fr De Nobili. Good homiletic expositions were given by P. L. Veggi of Piacenza (d. 1736), G. Musocco of Trent and F. A. Boschis.
With the attacks of the Encyclopedists, Italian sacred oratory, like the French, in many cases took on an exaggeratedly apologetic and polemical tone in its search for a point of fusion between religious and philosophical-scientific arguments. Still maintaining their equilibrium were the Jesuits: Q. Rossi (d. 1760), G. Granelli (d. 1770), E. Lucchesi (d. 1766), G. Trento (d. 1778) and I. Venini (d. 1778), esteemed emulator, if not superior, to Segneri, and called the Massillon of Italy. Perhaps surpassing them is the Franciscan Pier Maria da Pederobba (d. 1785), summoned by Benedict XIV and the orator of orators. Also to be remembered are P. Pacciudi (d. 1785) and G. B. Roberti (d. 1786), better known as writers, and St Alphonsus Liguori (1696–1787); also the controversial Dominican A. Valsecchi (d. 1791), F. Frassen (d. 1792) of the Conventual Franciscans, the popular and combative A. S. Vanini (d. 1795), the sought-after G. L. Pellegrini (d. 1799), A. Turchi (d. 1803), Capuchin, bishop of Parma, apologist. Good exponents of Sacred Scripture were the Jesuit A. Nicolai (d. 1784), G. Lavino and G. Marchetti; good catechists were Ildefonso da Bressanvido of the Friars Minor, considered the prince of catechists (d. 1777), and Agostino da Fusinato (d. 1803).
The oratory of the 19th century was divided between classicism and romanticism. Following the example of the French orators Ravignan, Frayssenou, and Lacordaire, Italian orators also engaged in polemics against rationalism, but they were often academic in style, and when they adhered to popular preaching, it lacked substance. Notable orators, however, included S. Canovai of Florence (d. 1811); the Carmelites V. Zanetti (d. 1812) and P. L. Grossi (d. 1812); the Franciscan P. Deani (d. 1824), a philosopher, writer, and effective orator; F. Donadoni (d. 1826), a dignified and robust orator; F. Nani of Loiano (d. 1828), known for his combative oratory; A. Cesari ([v.] d. 1828), an Oratorian priest who, through his Scriptural Lessons, was considered a master but, as a purist in language, lacked vigor and effect; his imitator was the Ligurian T. Buffa (d. 1837), a Dominican; the Veronese F. Villardi (d. 1837), a Conventual Minor, superior to Cesari in oratorical force; the Jesuit F. Finetti (d. 1842) of Voghera; P. Tondo, a Dominican, and the abbot C. Defendi. Controversial was the abbot G. Barbieri (1771–1852) of Bassano del Grappa, an academic orator whom some considered a reformer of sacred eloquence and others a corrupter.
The crisis of ideas in the second half of the 19th century could not fail to be reflected in sacred oratory, giving rise to a series of apologetic, polemical, and social orators. Distinguished by a special method, reminiscent of French conference-style preaching, was the Sicilian Theatine G. Ventura (1792–1863). He avoided mannerism and forensic oratorical conduct, adhering instead to sacred oratory with straightforward language, judicious use of Sacred Scripture and the Church Fathers, and a solid, profound exposition. Forced into exile, he preached from the pulpit of Notre-Dame in France. Notable are his discourses on Philosophical Reason and Catholic Reason and those on Christian Political Power. He left *Homilies* and several funeral orations, such as that for Daniel O'Connell. Alongside Ventura, one should recall G. B. Giordano, T. Gaudenzi, Stocchi, and above all C. M. Curci (1809–81) for his *Scriptural Lessons*. Also part of the history of 19th-century sacred oratory are Cardinals A. Capecelatro (d. 1912), an Oratorian; G. Alimonda (d. 1891); E. Mauri (d. 1896); and A. Bausa (d. 1899), Dominicans; P. Schiaffino (d. 1889), an Olivetan benefactor; Monsignor P. A. Del Corona (d. 1912), a Livornese archbishop of Sardica; Monsignor E. Bindi (d. 1872), bishop of Pistoia and Prato; and Monsignor G. Bonomelli (d. 1914), bishop of Cremona.
In contemporary oratory, the apologetic-social and pastoral tendencies predominate. Among those to be remembered are the Jesuits A. Pasvich (d. 1913) and G. Zocchi (d. 1912); the Dominican V. PIETRO LOMBARDO; the Franciscans Agostino da Montefeltro (d. 1921) and Teodosio da Sandtelo of Val di Sieve (d. 1929); the canon D. Conti (d. 1910); the Capuchin Roberto da Nove (d. 1939); the sculptor Giovanni Giovannozzi (d. 1928); the Barnabite Giovanni Semeria (d. 1921). Among the most recent, the Franciscan Monsignor V. Facchinetti (d. 1950), who pioneered radio preaching in Italy; the Jesuit R. Lombardi; and the Augustinian A. Angelini, representatives of contemporary apologetic-social oratory.
A source of information for the history of modern spirituality and the guiding norms of the Church are the pastoral letters that bishops address to the clergy and faithful at the beginning of Lent, such as those by Cardinals L. M. Parocchi, G. Celesia, a Benedictine archbishop of Palermo; A. C. Ferrari (d. 1921), archbishop of Milan; P. Maffi (d. 1931), archbishop of Pisa; and A. Mistrangelo of Savona (d. 1930), of the Piarist Fathers, archbishop of Florence. In recent times, papal oratory has been particularly intense, addressing all theological, dogmatic, moral, and social issues from Pius IX to Blessed Pius X and the present pontiff Pius XII, whose discourses and messages have been collected in 12 volumes published by the Società Editrice Vita e Pensiero in Milan.
Orators of other nations in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. — Among the Spanish and Portuguese: E. Naxera of Toledo and S. Aguilar; the Dominicans Salazar Cavallero, F. Herrera, and A. de Lorea; the Augustinian Pietro da S. Giuseppe, all active between 1630 and 1690. In the 18th century: in Spain, Ronzon of Terragona (d. 1711); D. Lobato, with his five volumes of *Sermons*; G. Alberite, with 52 orations; and F. Bono (d. 1740). Pietro Diaz (d. 1777), a priest of the Regular Congregation of S. Gaetano, published four volumes of *Panegyrics*. Notable were the Franciscan Riesco the Great; G. Troncoso, preacher to His Majesty; and G. Gonzales, with his eight volumes of *Sermons*.
The Portuguese A. Vieira of Lisbon (d. 1697), a Jesuit, is considered one of the greatest orators of that nation, as was E. Reyz (d. 1699), another Jesuit; the Augustinian C. Almeida (d. 1679), an eminent preacher. E. Sylva (d. 1700) composed the *Sylva Concionatoria*; the Augustinian E. Figueiredo and E. De Lima, author of *Las Ideas Sacradas* (1720). Emmanuele De Gouven, a highly acclaimed Augustinian.
Among the Germans, the Jesuits M. Faber of Bavaria (d. 1633); G. Mentrius of Mainz (d. 1672); F. Kiselius of Fulda (d. 1674), a preacher and publicist; M. Radau, author of *Orator Extemporaneus*; U. Dirrheim and F. Hartung (d. 1682), a polemical preacher; G. Hayes, a missionary preacher and author of a catechism in question-and-answer form based on Canisius. Also notable was the Dominican R. De Lamentz, author of *Paradisus Concionatorum*; the Augustinian E. Knorr (d. 1701), author of numerous panegyrics.
In Germany, the Jesuits C. Linek of Prague; the Rhenish C. Nagel and the Bohemian V. Scheffer (d. 1717) are well known. Also famous was G. Averbausen of Kempen (d. 1734), author of *Flowers of Examples or Historical Catechism*; B. Bassar of Locopol (Carniola; d. 1738), known as the Chrysostom of his country. Augustinians included Abramo di S. Chiara (d. 1709), court preacher to Emperor Leopold I in Vienna; I. Ertl, B. Kogrin, and D. Schoenaher; the Bavarian F. Dorfner (d. 1719); and G. Hieber of Dunckelspiel (Sweden), known as the "revived Cicero" (d. 1731). Also highly eloquent was G. Angerer of Vienna. The Jesuits G. Grill, who preached also in Hungarian; M. Krammer, preacher in Prague; F. Schmitz of Cologne (d. 1781); L. Fischer of Vienna (d. 1787), a preacher, rhetorician, and mathematician; L. Mertz of Doresdorf in Swabia (d. 1792), a preacher for 21 years in the cathedral of Augsburg. A. Mager of Vienna, an Augustinian (d. 1751), published 99 discourses on the feasts of the year. The Polish Jesuits C. Erzozowski of Lithuania (d. 1756); G. Borner of Giezin, a Polish-language missionary for 32 years. The Germans A. Augerer of Sigendorf (Austria; d. 1802), author of *Conciones Matutinae*, a Jesuit; G. M. Daier, professor at the University of Dillingen and later bishop of Regensburg. G. E. Veith, a converted Jew, a glory of the pulpit of St. Stephen; his works include *Homilies and Sermons*, published in Vienna in 1885. Also notable were the Benedictine Beda Weber and Cardinal Melchior von Diepenbach, bishop of Breslau (d. 1850). Missionary conference speakers include the Jesuits Hosslacher, De Lamezan, Schmude, Carme, and Ambroise; the Redemptorists Pemiza and Zobel. Monsignor G. E. Ketteler, bishop of Mainz, is particularly noteworthy for his dissemination and application of Catholic sociological principles. A preacher and ordinary at the University of Bonn was F. S. Dieringer; A. Kerschbaumer, author of a *May* published in Vienna in 1864; G. E. Schmid, catechist of Salzburg. Among contemporary figures worthy of note are Cardinal Innitzer of Vienna and Faulhaber for their pastoral letters. Monsignor Doders, the Franciscan D. Ortsiefer, preacher of the cathedral of Cologne, the Capuchin D. Habers Brunner, and the Jesuit Waldmann.
Among the English, the following are notable: Scarbrik of Lancashire (d. 1709), who was a preacher to James II; Giacomo Adams (d. 1802), orator of St Patrick’s, London; P. Goudolphy, publicist and author of five volumes of Sermons (d. 1831); the Oratorian F. G. Faber, more a writer of ascetical works than an orator. Also well known are the orator-cardinal N. Wiseman and G. E. Newman, who are the most illustrious representatives of Anglo-Saxon oratory. — See pl. X.