SPIRITUAL EXERCISES. — This expression is applied in a general sense to the whole body of spiritual practices aimed at personal sanctification, and in a more particular and unique sense to the retreat lasting several days, dedicated to spiritual matters.
The example of Jesus in the desert and of the Apostles in the Upper Room (Acts 1:13) prompted, in antiquity, select groups of Christians to withdraw during Lent to desert places. Above all after St. Euthymius (d. 473), one of the most ardent promoters of these retreats, their use became so widespread that Fr. Viller believes it was general throughout the 6th–8th centuries. In the Middle Ages many monasteries had special rooms and sometimes “hermits’ cells” for these guests. The decline of monastic life also brought about the progressive disappearance of these spiritual retreats.
As a reaction to the religious upheaval of the 15th century, men eager for reform are seen drawing near, for a few weeks (the classic example being Gerard Groote), to the fires of regeneration newly kindled especially in the milieu of the “Devotio Moderna.” St. Ignatius of Loyola providentially systematized this practice, assigning it a precise purpose, organizing a gradual and methodical process, and placing all ascetical work under the guidance of a director.
Here, in summary, is the development of St. Ignatius’ “tactics.” In a first stage, the so-called First Week, after showing through the “Principle and Foundation” the norm and criterion according to which all actions must be conformed, he arouses in the exercitant a deep aversion to sin and to all disorders and affections that impede the service of God. Once this “purgation” of the soul is achieved, St. Ignatius presents Jesus Christ as the model of divine service and in the act of calling to his following, while at the same time disposing the soul so that, imitating Him, it may order all its faculties and its whole life. In the Third and Fourth Weeks the author of the Spiritual Exercises seeks to bring about a more intimate compenetration and transformation of the soul with the Lord, through an internal crucifixion and almost identification with the sentiments and criteria of Jesus Christ. Only thus will the perfect ordering of love come about, as he teaches in the Contemplation to Attain Love, and the soul will be able to serve and love God in all things.
The book of the Spiritual Exercises was composed by St. Ignatius in order and as an aid to this end. It is therefore not a book for reading, nor even the theoretical exposition of a system. The structure of the book was sketched at Manresa (1522) and is the fruit of a “clear enlightenment” in which the Lord deigned to open the eyes of his intellect… and to make known to him things in so excellent a manner that they seemed new to him (Autobiography, no. 30). The Saint profited from new experiences and further readings to perfect his draft. He also reworked the form, thus transforming his original personal notes into a useful guide for other directors. In these additions one can note the influence of the *De imitatione Christi*, the *Vita Christi* of Ludolph of Saxony, and the *Legenda aurea* of Jacobus de Voragine, as well as manuals such as the books of the daily hours and penitential manuals. The much-debated influence of the *Ejercitatorio* of Cisneros was not so much a literary influence as a psychological one. Through it, St. Ignatius was able to connect with methodical prayer and with various exercises and practices then known.
On 31 July 1548 the Ignatian book was solemnly approved by Paul III with the brief *Pastoralis officii*, the first link in a chain of more than 600 testimonies in favor of the book by 35 Supreme Pontiffs over four centuries up to the present day. Pius XI published the special encyclical *Mens nostra* (20 December 1929), and already before this, in the apostolic constitution *Summarium Pontificium* (25 July 1922), in response to the requests of 672 cardinals, archbishops, and bishops, he had constituted St. Ignatius of Loyola heavenly patron of all Spiritual Exercises and of the bodies that promote them, in terms, according to Cardinal Enrico Pla y Deniel, analogous to those used by Leo XIII when he declared St. Thomas Aquinas patron of Catholic schools, so that one might deduce a preference for St. Ignatius in the spiritual field similar to that given by the Church to the “common and universal teacher” in the field of ecclesiastical sciences. Thus is also explained the exceptional affirmation of Pius XI, when in the encyclical *Mens nostra* he calls the Ignatian Spiritual Exercises “the wisest and most universal code of spiritual government of souls… a most sure guide to conversion and to the highest spirituality,” and that of Pius XII: “the Exercises of St. Ignatius will always be one of the most effective means for the spiritual regeneration of the world through their right ordering, provided that they remain naturally Ignatian” (24 October 1948).
The original Spanish of the Exercises has been lost. There is preserved, however, a copy used and revised by the Saint himself by his own hand, which is called the “autograph.” Editions of the book in 24 languages number about 300. To these must be added those included in the various commentaries on the Exercises by more than 800 authors. Thus, according to approximate calculations, there is an average of one edition per month over four centuries and a minimum of 4 or 5 million copies.
At first the Spiritual Exercises were given individually. The companions of the Jesuits in the 17th century had special rooms for those making the Exercises. But there were also houses built exclusively for Spiritual Exercises. The first of all, which lasted only a few months, was a villa rented in Siena in 1538. In 1553 a permanent house for the Exercises was built in Alcalá. Others followed at Cologne (1561), Louvain (1569), and Val de Rosal (1570). Famous, and built expressly for groups, was the “Ascetarium” established in Milan through the work of St. Charles Borromeo (1579), who made the Ignatian method the animating principle of his reform. Already in the 17th century the Spiritual Exercises spread to many nations of Europe, to America, India, and Japan. Among those making the Exercises were cardinals, bishops, diplomats, university professors, influential men, but above all many religious priests, even from the oldest Orders such as Benedictines, Dominicans, Franciscans, Camaldolese, and Augustinians.
Group Spiritual Exercises, begun in the 17th century with religious and priests, took on a remarkable development in the 18th century, being promoted by the great apostles of holy piety: Peter de Bérulle, St. Francis de Sales, J. J. Olier, St. Vincent de Paul, who personally gave them to more than 20,000 people. The beginning of the large-scale movement of Spiritual Exercises for the laity is constituted by the foundation of the house at Vannes (1659) thanks to the generosity of the bishop, Msgr. Kerlivo. Fr. V. Huby, animator of the work, gave Spiritual Exercises every year to about 2,500 men. Alongside this, Catherine de Francheville founded another house for women with 330 rooms.
Other great apostles of the Spiritual Exercises were, also in France, Frs. Maunoir (d. 1683), Jégou (d. 1701), Renaudet (d. 1743), Mayet (d. 1761), and Sister Claude Teresa de Kermeno; in Italy, Frs. Pavone (d. 1637), Segneri (d. 1694), Cattaneo (d. 1705), de Mattheis (d. 1779), Lentini (d. 1795), together with Frs. Manuilo (d. 1742) and Vassallo (d. 1775), founders of the houses of the Spiritual Exercises in Naples and Cagliari; in Spain, Frs. Peguera (d. 1769) and Bertran (d. 1774), founders of the houses in Gerona and Barcelona, and Fr. Calatayud (d. 1773); in Brussels and Portugal, Fr. Malagrida (d. 1761); in America, Frs. Serra (d. 1697), Márquez (d. 1768), and Moncada (d. 1768); in China, Frs. de Chavagnac (d. 1777) and Benoist (d. 1774); in India, Frs. Lavernhe (d. 1735), Bertoldi (d. 1740), and Beschi (d. 1747). In the Germanic and Slavic countries, more than individual figures, it was the well-organized centers that stood out, such as Cologne, Olomouc, Prague, Dillingen, and Freiburg.
In the eighteenth century, the practice of retreats became one of the most widely adopted among spiritually minded people, thanks especially to the fervent recommendations of the Popes, notably Clement XI, Clement XII, and Benedict XIV. The suppression of the Society of Jesus (1773) dealt a severe blow to the retreats. Nevertheless, isolated centers remained, such as in Buenos Aires, where María Antonia de la Paz (d. 1799) managed to organize the Spiritual Exercises for 25,000 people; in Italy, through the efforts of St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori and the Redemptorists; in Regensburg with the assistance of Bp. Sailer; and in France with Victoria de San Luc (d. 1794) and María Carlota de Marigoo (d. 1819).
In the nineteenth century, Fr. Roothaan (d. 1853) was the true restorer of the theory and practice. In France, Fr. de Ravignan (d. 1858) and, above all, Fr. H. Wirtigant (d. 1926) distinguished themselves—first, until 1887, as founder and director of the Château-Blanc retreat house, and later with his Spiritual Exercises library established in Enghien (Belgium) and his numerous works of guidance and popularization.
Today, the Spiritual Exercises have reached a development unprecedented in history. They have become obligatory for priests (at least once every three years) and for religious (at least once a year; CIC, cann. 126, 595), as well as for those preparing to receive the tonsure or Holy Orders (can. 1001 § 1); and countless others undertake them. According to statistical estimates, at least two million people participate in closed retreats each year. In 1948 alone, the Jesuits offered them to approximately 850,000 people.
The influence of the Spiritual Exercises extends through many other means as well: open retreats, popular missions, spiritual literature and direction based on their principles, and above all through the infusion of many of its elements of spirituality not only into the Code of Canon Law but also into the organs, institutions, and spiritual practices of the Church.
V. On the theory of the Spiritual Exercises among ancient authors, the principal ones are Gagliardi, L. La Palma, and F. Suárez (*De Religione*, Tract. X, lib. IX, cap. 5-7); among modern authors, V. MERCIER, DÉSIRÉ, F. Hummelauer, E. Przywara, G. Calveras, H. Pinard de la Boullaye, L. Ambruszi, and A. Valensini. Italian authors who develop the Spiritual Exercises include G. Bucceroni, F. Calcagno, O. Marchetti, P. Orsini, L. Rosa, and G. Porta. Other authors: I. Casanovas, A. Denis, H. Gabriel, H. Longhaye, M. Mecheler, A. Orsini, G. Ovečka, and F. Rickaby. On the history of the Spiritual Exercises: H. Bernard, *Essai historique sur les exercices*, Louvain 1926; I. Parraguirre, *Historia de la práctica de los ejercicios*, I, Bilbao-Rome 1946; B. Ratz von Freitz, *Exercitien-Bibliothek*, Freiburg 1946. The journal *Manresa* (Barcelona) systematically publishes an annual bibliography of articles and works on the Spiritual Exercises.