SALVATION ARMY (Salvation Army). — An organization of a military type, ordered toward religious and social purposes. It was founded in 1878 by William Booth (1829–1912), a former minister of the English Methodist Church, to replace the “Christian Mission” founded by Booth himself in 1865. Booth, with the title of “general,” directed its work until 1912. At his death, his son William Bramwell Booth succeeded him as general until 1929, when he was replaced by E. J. Higgins, who in 1934 was succeeded by the founder’s daughter, Evangeline Booth; since 1939 the general has been G. Lyndon Carpenter.
The great development that the S. A. has experienced, its spread to more than 80 nations, its social and philanthropic institutions for every kind of outcast and needy person, its schools, and its newspapers, almost all bearing the name “The War Cry,” demonstrate the solid organization and the spirit of philanthropy and sacrifice with which many of its members are animated. It should be noted, however, that its greatest growth occurred in Protestant countries and in mission territories, where there was a great need for the works it promoted. In Catholic countries, charitable institutions supported by religious men and women or by laypeople, under the direction of the Church, have rendered, and continue to render, all the efforts of the Salvationists useless, or nearly so; they are also opposed by the Catholic spirit, which does not understand that kind of religious philanthropy without Sacraments or priests. As for doctrine, the Salvationists profess some of the fundamental truths of Christianity, such as the Trinity, the divinity of Jesus Christ, original sin, the immortality of the soul, etc.; and they agree with Protestants in recognizing the Bible as the sole rule of faith. They insist especially on conversion manifested through the public confession of being sinners. For this purpose they have introduced a practice that may be regarded as the characteristic feature of their public meetings: the “penitent bench” or “mercy seat” (Mercy Seat). At these meetings, the first benches, called the penitents’ benches, are left empty; after some singing and music, an officer recounts his conversion from the platform, showing repentance for his past faults and praising God’s mercy, and invites the hearers to repent of their sins. If someone feels moved to do the same and to speak, he is invited to the platform, where he makes his confession, which is then commented on by the officer. Meanwhile, other officers scattered among the audience observe whether anyone shows signs of emotion; if so, they kneel beside him, and, if they see that he is disposed to do so, invite him to go to the penitent bench as a public sign of acknowledging himself to be a sinner. They then take care to visit him frequently and to help him in his resolutions. Regarding justification, they share the Methodist doctrine that Booth had initially professed. Among other things, they admit that man can avoid all sins, and this is the seventh of the “Articles of War.” As regards the Sacraments, their manual of doctrine, after stating that the word Sacrament is not found in Sacred Scripture, and that Roman Catholics have seven, Protestants two, and Quakers or Friends none, adds: “The S. A. admits none, professing with the majority of other Christians that the Sacraments are not necessary for salvation.” The organization or discipline of the Salvationists is military, and ecclesiastical names are replaced by terms taken from the military sphere. The supreme and absolute head is the general. Only in 1929 was his power tempered, among other things by depriving him of the direct administration of all the S. A.’s assets and property. Under the general there is a chief of staff, under whom are lieutenant commissioners, who ordinarily have jurisdiction over several nations; lieutenant colonels, who head a single nation; and so forth, with progressively lesser jurisdiction: brigadiers, majors, captains, and soldiers. Even outside the hierarchy they use military terms: converts are “prisoners,” death is “promotion to glory,” envelopes containing an offering are “cartridges,” and saying amen all together is “firing a volley” (to fire a volley). All government is in the hands of laypeople, men and women without distinction: supreme authority belongs to the general. The Salvationists have become famous for preaching in squares and streets to the sound of drums and trumpets and without human respect. They established themselves in Italy in 1887, but have been unable to make much progress.
BIRL.: C. Crivelli, I protestanti in Italia, II, Isola del Liri 1935, pp. 207–751; Handbook of Salvation Army Doctrine, New York 1923; An Outline of Salvation Army History, London 1932; G. Swarts, Le Base des Pénitents. Etude psychologique sur l'œuvre de la conversion à l'Armée du Salut, Paris 1931; The Salvation Army Yearbook, London, from 1930 to 1940.