BELGIO

BELGIUM. – A state in north-western Europe (30,508 sq. km.), slightly larger than Piedmont, bordering on the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and France.

SUMMARY: I. Geography – II. Historical events – III. The Church in Belgium – IV. Literature – V. Educational system.

I. GEOGRAPHY

The trough through which the Scheldt and Meuse flow divides the territory into two distinct sections, likewise oriented from south-west to north-east. The southern section is a plateau interrupted by hilly ridges (the Ardennes), with a damp and inclement climate, a sparse population, and a predominantly rural character; the northern section, vast and densely populated, is a plain that gently slopes down to the short (66 km) coastline, where there are also low-lying beaches protected by dikes and reclaimed for cultivation (*polders*), with a typically oceanic climate. The plain, rich and abundant in crops in its central and western parts (Flanders), becomes poorer and bleaker towards the east (the heathlands of Campine), and is traversed by the Scheldt, a modest river in terms of length but abundant in water and navigable, at whose estuary lies the greatest commercial emporium of Belgium and one of the most active in this part of Europe: Antwerp.

The population (8.4 million inhabitants in 1947), which has a high density (276 inhabitants per sq. km.; 540 in the central region of Brabant), in fact the highest in Europe (though one must bear in mind the modest territorial base), consists of more than half Flemings, who speak a Germanic dialect, and slightly less than half Walloons, who speak French (with small groups of German speakers in the east): the two linguistic domains are roughly divided by the line Tournai–Liège. Almost the entire country is Catholic; Protestants constitute only 0.3% and Jews 0.1% of the total. Besides the capital Brussels (about 1 million inhabitants, including suburbs), several cities stand out for their economic importance, though of purely national interest: Antwerp (256,000 inhabitants), Ghent (161,000 inhabitants), centre of the woollen industry, Liège (151,000 inhabitants), the principal iron and steel centre, Mechelen (61,000 inhabitants), Ostend (48,000 inhabitants), etc.

Agriculture and livestock raising, although highly flourishing, take second place in the country’s economy compared to industrial and commercial activity, which are favoured, the former by mineral wealth (coal, iron, zinc), the latter by the country’s privileged position at the crossroads of communication routes between the extra-European regions (beyond England) and eastern Europe, and between this and western Europe.

The Kingdom of Belgium is a constitutional representative monarchy with a bicameral Parliament; united in a single state with the Netherlands in 1815, Belgium separated from it in 1830.

| Provinces | Area in sq. km. | Population (Estimate) per sq. km. | Density per sq. km. | Capital population in thousands |
|---------------------|-----------------|------------------------------------|---------------------|----------------------------------|
| Antwerp | 2,831 | 1,255,760 | 444 | Antwerp (256) |
| Brabant | 3,283 | 1,773,635 | 540 | Brussels (935) |
| West Flanders | 3,234 | 984,475 | 305 | Bruges (53) |
| East Flanders | 3,002 | 1,207,805 | 402 | Ghent (161) |
| Hainaut | 3,721 | 1,185,904 | 319 | Mons (25) |
| Liège | 3,951 | 928,041 | 235 | Liège (151) |
| Limburg | 2,408 | 443,758 | 184 | Hasselt (29) |
| Luxembourg | 4,418 | 214,105 | 48 | Arlon (11) |
| Namur | 3,660 | 350,121 | 96 | Namur (31) |
| Eupen and Malmédy | 1,056 | 66,854 | 63 | — |
| **TOTAL** | **31,564** | **8,411,358** | **276** | |

II. HISTORICAL EVENTS

It is not necessary to wait until 1830, the year of the revolution that consecrated the definitive separation of the northern Netherlands from the southern ones, to speak of Belgium. Even if the formation of the Belgian state does not date back beyond that year, the southern provinces already had a form of independence under common princes from the Middle Ages onwards. Situated between Neustria and Austrasia, the provinces soon freed themselves from the centralising influence of the Kingdom of France and the Empire. With the Treaty of Verdun (843), the formation of Lotharingia had bound the Flemings and Picardians on the left bank of the Scheldt to French influence, while placing the populations of Germanic and Romance speech on the right bank of the same river and along the Meuse under imperial dependence.

The families of the Counts of Flanders, Brabant, Hainaut, Namur, Limburg, and Luxembourg often united under the feudal system to preserve their influence beyond their respective borders. Linked by marital ties to the royal families of neighbouring countries, these princes took part in the great politics of their time. Godfrey of Bouillon, one of the leaders of the First Crusade, received in 1099 the title of “Advocate of the Holy Sepulchre.” The House of Namur held the Latin Empire of Constantinople from 1217 until its end. The Luxembourgs provided several holders of the imperial throne of Germany. The ecclesiastical principality of Liège enjoyed independent political life and managed to escape the centralising movement of the Burgundians in the 15th century, but the bishops elected often belonged to Belgian comital families, and their jurisdiction encompassed a good half of the provinces of Belgium. Philip the Good succeeded in achieving a first union of the states situated between Frisia and Champagne. This union was maintained, after the death of Charles the Bold (1477), by the arms of Maximilian of Habsburg, husband of Mary of Burgundy. This marriage made the Habsburgs the legitimate sovereigns of the United Provinces. For three centuries they had to swear, upon assuming power, to preserve the rights and privileges of the communes and estates, and were recognised as counts or dukes or marquises in each of the provinces, definitively united and rendered independent of any vassalage to France or the Empire, from the time of Charles V onwards. The communes and cities enjoyed wide liberties and possessed charters of franchise as early as the 12th century. Taxes and contributions had to be approved each year by the assemblies of the provincial estates, which constituted a limit to the arbitrariness of powerful princes who were drawn into the game of European politics, first under the influence of Spain and then under that of Austria.

Under Charles V and Philip II, the cities of the north suffered more deeply from Protestant influence, first Lutheran and then Calvinist, and together with the southern provinces they rose up against Spain. The national sentiment, exalted by the desire for political and religious freedoms, seemed for an instant to triumph after the repressions of the Duke of Alba (1568–73) and the incompetence of Requesens, sent to repair the errors of his predecessor (1573–76). With the Pacification of Ghent (1576), the States General in fact proclaimed their independence. Don John of Austria and later Alexander Farnese, aided by the Catholic "Malcontents" of the Union of Arras, succeeded in having Philip II’s authority recognized in the southern provinces and in beginning the subjugation of the northern provinces. William of Orange, leader of the revolt, having been unable to maintain the national ideal of tolerance of 1576, was forced to resign himself to defending the Union of Utrecht, grouping together the states of the north, Flanders, and Brabant. While he lost these two provinces, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, and Guelders continued the struggle, excluding from their territories any confession other than the Protestant one. The majority of the remaining Catholic population, deprived of its priests, thus gradually drifted into heresy.

The struggle between the southern Netherlands (Flanders), which had practically become independent of Spain under the Archdukes Albert and Isabella (1598–1623), and the United Provinces continued until 1648, to the serious detriment of both sides. The reign of the Archdukes ensured a splendid Catholic renaissance in the southern provinces in the fields of education, the arts, and literature. The Treaty of Münster (1648) consecrated the definitive separation of north and south. Flanders lost the Catholic regions of Lower Scheldt, northern Brabant, and Trans-Meuse, and saw the port of Antwerp closed. The wars of Louis XIV further stripped the Spanish Netherlands of a large part of the County of Flanders, Artois, Cambrésis, half of Hainaut, the Tournaisis, and part of Luxembourg. The Treaties of the Pyrenees (1659), Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), and Nijmegen (1678) consecrated these successive amputations. The War of the Spanish Succession made the Belgian provinces the principal stake of European rivalries once more and caused extensive devastation. The Treaty of Utrecht and later the Barrier Convention (Antwerp, 1715) transferred these provinces to the authority of the Habsburgs of Austria after a period of French and Bavarian influence lasting more than twenty years. Peace restored to the Austrian Netherlands an unquestionable material prosperity, and, aside from the interruption of the War of the Austrian Succession (1745–48), they were able to develop in tranquility and order. However, opposition to enlightened despotism found a pronounced expression on the occasion of the ceremony inaugurating the seminary of Louvain in 1785. In 1789, the long-suppressed discontent erupted in the Brabant Revolution, leading to the formation of the United Belgian States. But discord among the conservative representatives led to the loss of what had been achieved. The army of Leopold II, who succeeded Joseph II, retook the provinces in 1790 almost without a fight. But in 1794, the French definitively annexed the Austrian Netherlands and the Principality of Liège in 1795.

The union of Belgium, Holland (and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg), assigned personally to the new king in compensation for ancestral territories ceded to Prussia, formed, by the Treaty of Vienna, the new Kingdom of the Netherlands under the sovereignty of William of Orange-Nassau. This state could have constituted an ideal buffer between France and Germany and contributed to the maintenance of the European balance. It might have lasted a long time had the Protestant king not leaned too heavily on the Calvinist or Waldensian minorities, to whom he granted predominant influence in the army and ministries. To fuse together populations so diverse in mentality, religion, and language would have required a more capable and open-minded sovereign than William I of the Netherlands. He needlessly alienated the Belgian Catholics with his attacks on the Bishop of Ghent and his vicars and with his actions against denominational schools and religious congregations. The law guaranteeing freedom and equality to all cults that did not disturb public tranquility displeased the bishops and was approved only by a minority of Belgian notables: 527 in favor, 796 against, and 280 abstentions out of 1,633 consulted. Despite this warning, William I still harbored the vain ambition of forming a clergy loyal to his ideas through a compulsory philosophical school. To this end, he founded a college in Louvain in 1824, which immediately met with the opposition of the bishops and Catholics, and suppressed the diocesan seminaries and the teaching of the religious congregations. The conclusion of a concordat in 1827 did nothing to relieve the discredit into which the king’s ministers had fallen in their attempt to subjugate the Church. The proposal of unworthy candidates for episcopal sees provoked lively opposition. The liberals, on the other hand, attached to press freedom, demanded the restoration of jury trials and ministerial responsibility. In 1828, uniting their efforts with those of the Catholics, they promoted a general petition in favor of freedom. The work of Lamennais did much to reconcile Catholics and liberals, and the alliance was maintained until the revolution. The personal absolutism of the king, his obstinacy, his erroneous ideas about the religious value of Catholicism, as well as the servile blindness and sectarianism of his ministers Gendebien and Van Maanen, finally brought about the ruin of the fragile artificial state. The French, incited by the Congress of Vienna, and the Catholic and liberal press waged a relentless opposition to the government. The July Revolution of 1830 in Paris strengthened resentment and emboldened the opposition. The king’s ministers took no security measures. The performance of *La Muette de Portici*, an opera depicting the revolt of Masaniello, provoked the enthusiasm of the bourgeoisie and people of Brussels, enthusiasm that immediately had its consequences in the streets. The house of Minister Van Maanen was sacked, the revolt spread and gained strength, and the provinces rallied to the capital. William I attempted to intervene, but it was too late. A provisional government, formed at the end of September, extended its authority over the whole country, proclaimed Belgian independence on 24 October, and convened a national congress. The assembly of 200 directly elected members confirmed the government’s decisions as early as 10 November and immediately declared itself in favor of establishing a monarchy.

On 3 February 1831, the national congress elected the Prince of Nemours, second son of Louis-Philippe, as king, but this candidacy was not accepted by the Powers. On 3 June, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was elected. The new king immediately set about obtaining from the conference the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles, which granted extensive concessions to Belgian claims both territorially and financially. The congress ratified the treaty on 9 July, and the king was able to enter Belgium and take the oath to the constitution on 21 July.

**Political Organization and Parties.** The Constituent Assembly had established a hereditary constitutional monarchy with the separation of powers. The Church enjoyed complete independence, and the ministers of worship were remunerated by the State.

The first legislative elections took place without contest: the votes all went to a single unionist party comprising liberals and Catholics. The right to vote was limited to those who paid a certain tax, so that their number did not exceed 30,000. The unionists, under the leadership of Nothomb, Van de Weyer, and De Theux, held the government from 1830 onwards. Nine years later, radical liberals organized a powerful party that separated from the union, while the Catholics, remaining loyal, prepared public opinion by founding a well-distributed press. A first liberal ministry, presided over by Lebeau, assumed power in 1840, but the following year it had to yield to the unionist ministry of Nothomb, followed in 1845 by that of Van de Weyer, and in 1846 by the ministry of De Theux. While the Catholics remained loyal to the unionist party, liberal propaganda increasingly turned toward an anticlerical and sectarian policy. This direction reached its peak under the liberal ministry of Frère-Orban, which lasted from 1878 to 1884.

The elementary education law of 1879 removed religious instruction from school programs and established the creation in each municipality of a free, agnostic state school. From 1842, a *modus vivendi*, acceptable to Catholics, had established that religious instruction was official and under the control of the ministers of worship. Breaking the status quo, the liberals entered into open conflict with the bishops, who in turn condemned the godless schools and forbade the faithful from attending them. Within a few months, Catholics organized elementary schools in every parish and, at the cost of great financial and personal sacrifices, gathered more than 6% of school-age boys in their free schools. The sectarianism and crudeness of the liberals so offended the Belgian spirit in this struggle that they permanently lost the trust of the electorate. In the elections of 1884, the Catholics obtained an overwhelming majority, which they maintained until 1919, despite the considerable expansion of suffrage and the appearance of a third party, the socialist.

When, in 1918, a national union ministry was formed, King Albert promised universal suffrage for all citizens who had reached the age of twenty-one, meeting the socialists who had pursued this goal for 40 years. Equality in sacrifice gave the right to electoral equality. The Constituent Assembly of 1919, elected on the basis of this right, recognized universal suffrage, granting women the vote only in administrative elections. A simple law could now extend this right to provincial and national elections. The right-wing, which had remained the largest party, lost the majority it had held since 1884 and was deceived by socialist promises into supporting them on the issue of women’s suffrage. Subsequently, the new party represented by Flemish nationalists, and then that of the rexists in 1935, greatly reduced the right-wing’s numbers, while the communist party made inroads within the socialist contingent. For a long time, this situation gave the liberal party, reduced to about 25 deputies, the role of arbiter in the coalition governments that divided power between the two wars. In 1948, women’s suffrage was extended to all elections. In the current Chamber, there are 92 deputies of the Social Catholic Party, 65 socialists, 21 liberals, and 23 communists. In the Senate, the Social Catholic Party holds almost half the seats. The government, presided over by Spaak, a socialist, has included representatives of the Christian Social Party and socialists since 1947. The socialist-liberal-communist coalition, which had taken power in July 1945, ceased to exist due to the monarchical question.

**Economic and Social Issues.** If the field of struggle for the parties during most of the 19th century was almost entirely limited to doctrinal matters, this was due to the fact that, from an economic and social standpoint, the propertied electors, grouped in the Catholic and liberal parties, were almost entirely in agreement.

Faced with this industrial prosperity, the condition of those workers who could not defend their rights through associations was precarious, and the reports of the Catholic congresses of Mechelen in 1863 reveal the existence of numerous abuses in the organization of workers’ lives. However, the liberal spirit was still too strong to allow a successful appeal to the coercive intervention of the State. The liberal myth of the harmony of interests impeded the action of well-intentioned men.

Socialist propaganda found a fertile ground among the masses of workers uprooted from their habitual homes, poorly housed, and forced to conceal their solidarity movements within mutual aid societies. The right to strike and to organize was legally recognized for workers in 1866. The 1866 inquiry enabled the Catholic ministry of Beernaert to grasp the gravity of the situation and prompted it to introduce progressive social legislation that placed Belgium at the forefront of Europe. The principal laws addressed the following areas: prohibition of child labor and of the employment of women in mines and unhealthy industries; limitation of working hours in mines, and subsequently in factories; protection of wages and safety measures against workplace accidents; insurance against accidents and provision for old age; construction of workers’ housing; and finally, reform of the electoral code.

The socialist unions, which were the first to be organized, counted numerous Catholic workers among their members. An imposing network of cooperatives and mutual aid funds supported the movement, which had two major daily newspapers and a strongly disciplined and united political party, capable of effectively pursuing its goal of universal suffrage. The Catholics, who had recognized the existence of the social question as early as the Malines Congress of 1863, hesitated for a long time before taking action. It would not be until 1895—five years after *Rerum novarum*—that a formal response would emerge. The time lost in this deplorable blindness was never fully recovered. The working masses were won over by socialist propaganda, especially in Wallonia, and the efforts of Christian democrats, led by G. Kurth and Abbot Pottier, were exhausted in sterile polemics with conservative right-wing factions. The heroism that Christian union workers had to demonstrate to make up for lost time can never be sufficiently emphasized. In 1901, they numbered 11,000; in 1914, 123,000; in 1939, 350,000; and currently, they number 500,000. The majority of members come from the Flemish regions. Today, while the Walloon Christian labor movement is no longer negligible since the intervention of the J.O.C. (Jeunesse Ouvrière Catholique), it remains far behind the ranks of socialist unionism. In the Walloon regions, there are approximately 60,000 Christian unions compared to 350,000 socialist ones. Flemish workers have *Het Volk*, a well-edited and widely circulated newspaper. It should also be noted that the average age of workers enrolled in Christian unions is under forty, whereas those in socialist unions are distinctly older. Mutual aid societies at the beginning of the 19th century were exclusively inspired by Christian principles, and their members long remained within the old frameworks. Socialists have directed their efforts toward this sector for the past thirty years. As of December 31, 1946, socialist participants numbered 723,203, while those in Christian organizations totaled 681,710.

While Catholics suffered an undeniable setback in organizing the working class—having for too long opposed unions—they did, however, succeed in rallying the vast majority of farmers in the Flemish-speaking regions into the *Boerenbond* (q.v.), or farmers’ association. In 1880, farmers had been struck by a severe agricultural crisis. Within a few years, Belgian agriculture overcame the crisis, doubling and in some cases tripling production per hectare, and shifted toward more profitable industrial crops or selective livestock farming.

The establishment of agricultural cooperatives for sales, purchases, and loans by the *Boerenbond* (q.v.) saved Belgian agriculture, securing it one of the top positions in Europe.

3. The Flemish Question

In 1830, the reaction against Dutch laws on language led the constituent assembly to deliberately ignore the Flemish language in political life, administration, and even the courts, despite the fact that the majority of the population in the northern provinces did not speak French. Beginning in 1840, a broad literary revival movement emerged in Flanders, leading to demands for equality between the two national languages. The first parliamentary manifestations occurred in 1856. In 1886, the Catholic ministry of Beernaert founded the Flemish Academy, eliminating any remaining judicial inferiority of the Flemish. The democratization of the electorate led to a Chamber of Deputies ignorant of French and expanded the language issue into a broader problem: the Flemish Question became one of the aspects of the social question. The *Fransquillons*, bourgeois of Flemish cities tied for centuries to French culture, disdained the popular language and neglected knowledge of its literary form, hindering the cultural emancipation of the Flemish masses. The movement in support of Flemish soon took on a sentimental and romantic character, animated by a lively nationalist sentiment. Catholic youth and the clergy actively participated in this movement for the vindication of Flemish rights and linguistic parity, directed more against the *Fransquillon* classes than against the Walloons. The demands were: exclusive use of Flemish in education and administration, regional recruitment with entirely Flemish units. These claims, supported in Parliament by part of the right wing and a few deputies from other parties, were gradually realized, sparking passionate debates. During the German occupation of 1914–18, German authorities sought to exploit the Flemish movement to divide the country, imposing administrative separation and making Ghent University Flemish—the only higher education institution reopened under pressure from the occupying authorities. The ensuing controversies poisoned Belgian domestic politics for many years. Under the pressure of these movements, Flemish Catholics were compelled to support the relevant legislative measures. The current state is as follows: regional monolingualism, bilingualism in the Brussels agglomeration and in general administration, and bilingualism in Parliament. The legitimate demands of the Flemish have thus been gradually satisfied, and the Flemish nationalist party, compromised by its ties with the occupier during the Second World War, has ceased to exist. The linguistic difficulties that had gravely weighed on Belgian life have thus been definitively resolved.

Belgium’s population has been steadily increasing despite the losses caused by the last two wars. In 1831, it numbered 3,786,000; a century later, in 1913, it reached 7,639,000; and in 1948, it stood at 8,450,000. The birth rate remained below 3.2% until 1880, gradually declining to 1.4%, then rising to 1.7% in 1947. The demographic crisis and the influence of neomalthusianism are particularly strong in major urban centers and in Walloon regions.

III. THE CHURCH IN BELGIUM — The Christian conquest of Romanized Belgium (which was part of Gallia Belgica) was relatively late, and few records remain. The bishop of Tongres, Servatius (Servais), appears at the Council of Rimini in 359, while Superior, bishop of Nerves, is mentioned in a Council of the Gauls in 356. The figures named in the earliest episcopal lists of Tongres and Tournai, dating back to

The legend of the disciples of St Peter is legendary. For other names of bishops that offer a secure historical guarantee, one must wait until the 6th century.

Falko, bishop of Tongres, and Vedastus (Vaast), bishop of Arras, were contemporaries of Clovis. Eleutherius appears at Tournai around 531. These bishoprics do not seem to have lasted long: Arras was united with Cambrai until 1094 and Tournai was annexed to Noyon until the 12th century. From Maastricht the see of Tongres was transferred to Liège after the death of St Lambert in 705. A bishopric founded at Thérouanne by St Audomar (Omer) in 663 extended its jurisdiction over Western Flanders. The boundaries of the dioceses, fixed at that time according to those of the Roman political divisions, remained unchanged until 1559.

St Amandus, St Remaclus and their monks were the principal evangelisers of Belgium until the 7th century. Numerous abbeys were founded at Ghent, Stavelot, Fosses, St-Trond, Lobbes, St-Hubert, Andenne and Nivelles.

The Irish and Anglo-Saxon monks assisted them in re-establishing Christianity. The hagiographical legends provide the biography of these valiant pioneers, but they are too late or conventional to offer an exact picture of this slow work. The Danish and Hungarian invasions of the 9th century often destroyed the monasteries. The parishes established under Charlemagne were developed by Bishop Walhande of Liège, who took care of the religious instruction of the faithful and the training of their pastors. In the 11th century, therefore, parochial centres multiplied in the towns and villages, and alongside the ancient parish churches there arose castles or demesne churches. Chapters and collegiate churches were established in the boroughs: in 1122 their number reached 90. The dioceses were divided into archdeaconries and deaneries governed according to customary law. In the 12th century there was a new flowering of monasteries: Floreffe, Averbode, Tongerloo, St Michael’s Antwerp, founded by St Norbert; Villers, Orval, Aulne, founded by St Bernard. These abbeys fostered the formation of the clergy and the parishes or ensured the cultivation of abandoned lands. The abbeys, chapters and lords exercised an extensive right of patronage over the parish churches of their domains, collected tithes and seriously contested episcopal authority. Out of 3,587 churches then counted in Belgium, 465 were dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, 230 to St Peter—especially the oldest ones—and 350 to St Martin.

The bishops Notger of Liège (972–1008) and Erluin of Cambrai obtained recognition as counts and princes of the empire and established important principalities within their dioceses. Their successors were likewise involved in feudal conflicts, and their sees became objects of political ambition. Bishops and

of Louvain of 1425 fortunately formed a valuable bulwark and exercised a profound influence on the country, fostering the formation of a common intellectual outlook and of educated pastors. The Lutheran error was condemned at Louvain as early as September 1520, even before the Roman Church intervened. Lutheranism initially met with little success, except in Antwerp and a few other cities. The Anabaptists made deeper inroads among the popular masses, while Calvinism was more widely accepted by the intellectuals in Hainaut and Flanders, though never to the extent seen in the northern provinces of Holland and Frisia. The most critical moment came in 1565, at the time of the iconoclastic excesses. The bloody repression by the Duke of Alba hardened opposition still further, and it was only through the reaction of the Walloons and the successes of Alexander Farnese’s campaigns that Catholic worship recovered its freedom in the counties of Flanders and Brabant.

The principal reform consisted in the creation of 14 new bishoprics in 1559 at the request of Philip II. The new bishops were able from 1565 onwards to apply the decrees of the Council of Trent and to oversee their observance as soon as Farnese’s armies had pacified Belgium. Assisted by the Jesuits, Capuchins, Recollects, Benedictines, Carmelites and Oratorians, they prepared the magnificent Catholic renaissance under the Archdukes. Heretics were absorbed or forced to leave the country. In the 17th century the number of Calvinists in the Catholic Netherlands had been reduced to a few representatives. The nunciature, established at Brussels in 1596, collaborated in the bishops’ efforts, particularly in the action directed towards subjecting the exempt chapters.

Order and concord were soon disturbed, however, with even the faith at risk, by the controversies raised following the spread of Jansenist doctrines (1642). The bishops of Mechelen, Ghent and Ypres and a large part of the theological faculty of Louvain rose against the condemnation of Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, who had always lived in union with the Church, attributing it to the hostility of the Jesuits, and did not submit to the Pope’s decision until 1643. Energetic action by the Archdukes de Precipiano (1690–1710) and Philip of Alsace (1716–65) was required to eliminate every remnant of opposition within the ranks of the clergy. The work carried out by the latter to secure acceptance of the bull Unigenitus and recognition of papal authority was so appreciated that he was made a cardinal in 1719. Jansenism nevertheless remained powerful in councils and would continue to exert its influence in the opposition of the state to clerical privileges.

The bishops of the Austrian period were generally active and spared their faithful the baleful influence of the French encyclopedists. The suppression of the Society of Jesus and its numerous colleges under Maria Theresa, and subsequently the abolition of numerous convents of contemplatives under Joseph II, as well as the other anti-clerical laws of this ruler, gave tangible proof of the loss of influence suffered by Catholicism. The Brabant Revolution was one of its consequences. In the final years of the 18th century, it was already estimated that 30 to 40 per cent of the population of Brussels did not observe Lent.

Dechristianisation was intensified by the French invasion. The French confiscated and sold the property

of the Church; they abolished 9 bishoprics, 3,400 parishes, 12 seminaries, 55 cathedral chapters, 110 abbeys, and 275 convents with more than 17,350 religious. The persecution reached unprecedented proportions. With the Concordat of 1802, the dioceses were profoundly transformed. Apart from the archbishopric of Mechelen, the bishoprics of Ghent, Tournai, Liège, and Namur remained. The Rhenish dioceses of Aachen, Trier, and Mainz were united to the metropolitan see; the “Forests” department, the former Luxembourg, was assigned to the diocese of Metz. NAPoleon appointed French bishops everywhere, who immediately aroused suspicion among part of the clergy for their submission to the Organic Articles; however, they managed to reorganize worship and recover undivided property. But the imposition of the imperial catechism in 1806, and soon after the rupture with Pope Pius VII, unleashed violent opposition. The bishops of Tournai and Ghent were imprisoned for upholding the viewpoint of their clergy at the Council of Paris in 1811. At the time of the liberation of Belgium in 1814, only one bishop remained in the exercise of his functions, that of Namur. The bishops of Tournai and Ghent, upon resuming their sees, opposed the adoption of the constitutional law of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands and the oath thereto, which from a religious standpoint they had reason to consider suspect. The conflict intensified further when, in June 1825, William I suppressed free secondary education and made the philosophical college of Leuven, which was under government control, compulsory. The conclusion of the concordat in 1827 and the appointment of new bishops, after lengthy negotiations with Rome, and the fruitless presentation of unworthy candidates, did not succeed in dampening the zeal of the petitioners. William delayed the repeal of the school laws until 1829. Belgian liberals, allied with Catholics, supported the overthrow of the regime in 1830.

In possession of all the freedoms guaranteed by the constitution of 1831, the new bishops, strengthened by the appointment at Mechelen of Sterckx, already vicar general, and by the restoration of the bishopric of Bruges in 1834, were able to reorganize Catholic education. With the founding of a university at Mechelen in 1835 and at Leuven, they secured for Belgian Catholics the means for higher scientific formation. Religious congregations took full advantage of the freedom of association. The same was true of numerous hospital and educational congregations, which secured for Belgian Catholics almost a monopoly of female secondary schools and charitable institutions. As in the time of the Archdukes, a true Christian revival took place. The seminaries, once again crowded, provided numerous and enthusiastic recruits for the diocesan clergy. The ideas of Lamennais, which had made a strong impression on the Belgian clergy before his condemnation in 1832, were gradually abandoned or modified, thanks to the good sense of the bishops and despite the concerns of Leopold I and Roman circles. At Leuven, however, traditionalism still had ardent partisans.

While Belgian Catholics were quick to benefit from the freedom of education, they neglected freedom of the press too much, allowing themselves to be outpaced by strongly anticlerical liberal newspapers, which waged a relentless campaign against the Church. One of the most pressing issues to arise under the first liberal ministries was the secularization of charitable institutions and cemeteries. Cardinal Sterckx and, after him, Cardinal Dechamps, his successor, fought in vain to obtain recognition of the civil personality of convents and pious works. It was not until the law of 1912 on nonprofit associations that Catholics achieved satisfaction on this point. The struggle to defend Catholic positions was supported by Bishop Malou of Bruges and Bishop De Montpellier of Liège. The difficulties it had to overcome reached their peak in the school battle that broke out in 1879. With their intransigence, the bishops galvanized the resistance of Belgian Catholics and emerged victorious from the crisis of 1884. Apostolic activity is marked by the congresses held at Mechelen in 1863 and in subsequent years, and from a social standpoint by the congresses of Liège in 1886 and of Mechelen in 1898 and 1909. Parish missions and retreats for workers were among the most effective means of slowing the progressive de-Christianization that struck the Belgian Church from 1890 onward. The tactic subsequently adopted by the clergy and laity was to organize as many works as possible specifically directed to the needs of individual social groups. These works were strongly encouraged under the inspiration of Cardinal Goossens (1883–1906) and Cardinal Mercier (1906–26). The latter was also the inspiration behind the Association of Belgian Catholic Youth, whose dynamism and the great congresses of Charleroi and Liège in 1928 awakened so many hopes among Belgian Catholics. Among the working class, the J.O.C. (Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne), founded by Canon Cardijn, provided a new formula for the reconquest of working women. One of the most painful concerns of the laborious apostolate of the Belgian clergy, both secular and regular, is certainly the phenomenon of de-Christianization in working-class centers. The curve of de-Christianization is on the rise, despite the brave and constant efforts of the clergy and Catholic Action organizations, and it is to be expected that, under the pressure of atheistic communism and socialism, the number of unbaptized, non-practicing Catholics, divorces, and illegitimate unions will continue to increase in the coming years. The middle and rural classes of Belgium have remained largely faithful to the Church. It therefore seems that the abandonment of the faith by the working masses has largely found favorable occasion in the delay with which Catholics decided to organize independent Christian trade unions. The clergy, formed piously in the seminaries, is in general zealous, industrious, chaste, and disciplined, but it has been overtaken by the rapid evolution of modern life. Perhaps those responsible for souls were not bold enough or enterprising enough. Recent missionary efforts will no doubt later deserve credit for bringing back to the Church the working masses, especially those uprooted from their places of origin who have abandoned it but who, in terms of justice and solidarity, retain much of the Christian spirit. Belgium employs its apostolic generosity also in the missionary enterprises of the Congo and other pagan lands. The number of missionaries of both sexes working in the most distant countries amounts to 3,000. The Congo alone has 1,500, and the fruits have been worthy of the work undertaken: within 70 years, more than a quarter of the indigenous population has been brought to Christianity. The number of baptized and catechumens exceeds 3 million. These results attest to the great Christian vitality of the mother country and the legitimate hope of one day reconquering the few thousand de-Christianized in Wallonia.

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**Belgium**

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(photo Paul Golfin, Brussels)

The population of Belgium on 1 January 1948 was 8,450,000 inhabitants, very unevenly distributed among the various dioceses. The archbishop of Mechelen has 3,500 priests for more than three million inhabitants. The population of each of the other dioceses generally exceeds one million, except Namur, which has fewer than 600,000 inhabitants and 1,200 priests. The same disproportion is found in the parishes. It is not uncommon to find in the diocese of Mechelen parishes with more than 25,000 inhabitants, while some parishes in the diocese of Namur have only 250.

Each diocese has one or more minor seminaries and a major seminary. The number of vocations, which for a long time was sufficient for the needs of the Belgian Church, is now tending to decrease, although it remains at a high level overall. The diocese of Tournai, which had suffered in recent years from a shortage of vocations, is gradually recovering. The clergy are subject to military service, which is performed in homogeneous medical units. During their year of service, seminarians and religious may continue their theological studies under the direction of their military chaplain and specially appointed professors. Two houses for dependents of the episcopate allow a certain number of seminarians and young priests to pursue their university studies in Leuven. However, the demands of parochial ministry restrict the number of those to whom permission can be granted to continue higher studies. The Belgian College in Rome accommodates a number of priests and clerics who study at the pontifical institutes.

The loyalty and attachment of the Belgian episcopate and laity to the Holy See have never wavered since 1830. It was in the diocese of Ghent that in 1859 the work of the Abbé de Saint-Pierre was founded, intended to assist the Holy See in defending its sovereignty. Many Belgians served among the papal zouaves organized by the Minister of Arms of the Papal States, Monsignor de Mérode. In the doctrinal field, the intervention of Cardinal dechamps, Archbishop of Mechelen (1865–83), was among the most notable. The constitution *Dei filius* of the First Vatican Council took up the essentials of his arguments. All the Belgian bishops supported the definition of papal infallibility, a traditional doctrine of the University of Leuven. Cardinal Mercier, Archbishop of Mechelen, and his successor, continued the tradition of the attachment of the Belgian Church to that of Rome. The representatives of the Holy See in Belgium—international since 1831, 1841, 1850, and 1880 to the present day—have honorably fulfilled the dedicated task of mediators when liberal and sectarian governments, from the beginning of independence, found themselves confronted with combative and energetic bishops. In the School War of 1879, the latter were victims of the sectarianism with which the struggle was conducted, and, due to the intransigence of the liberals, relations with the Holy See remained interrupted for five years. When the Catholic ministry of 1885 restored normal relations, the nuncios pursued a policy of reconciliation that earned them the gratitude of the Belgians on several occasions. The most famous of the former nuncios was Monsignor Pecci, who later became Pope Leo XIII. The nuncios have never ceased to take an intimate part in the life of Belgian Catholics and have vigorously defended them during the difficult period of foreign occupation.

Stavetot-Malmödy, in Terre wallonne, 10 (1924); Th. Ploegsarts, Les moniales cisterciennes, 4 voll. (Aywières, La Ramée, Florival e Wauthier-Braine), Bruxelles 1925-26; J.-M. Canivez, L'ordre de Citeaux en Belgique des origines (1132) au XXe siècle, Forges-lez-Chimay 1926; Fl. Prims, Geschiedenis van Antwerpen, Bruxelles 1927; A. Poncelet, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus dans les anciens Pays-Bas, 2 voll., 1927-28; L'université de Louvain à travers cinq siècles. Études historiques, pubblicati sotto la direzione di L. Van der Essen, 1927; Autori vari. Histoire de la Belgique contemporaine, 3 voll., 1928-30; L. Jadin, Procès d'information pour la nomination des évêques et des abbés des Pays-Bas, de Liège..., 3 voll., Roma 1928-31; L.-E. Halkin, L'hérésie et sa répression au pays de Liège avant la Réforme, Tongres 1929; F. Willocq, L'introduction des décrets du Concile de Trente dans les Pays-Bas et dans la principauté de Liège, Louvain 1929; U. Berlière, Coup d'œil historique sur l'ordre bénédictin en Belgique dans le passé et dans le présent, in Revue liturgique et monastique, 14 (1929), pp. 418-522; V. Fris, Histoire de Gand, Gand 1930; S. Tassier, Les démocrates belges de 1789. Étude sur le voisinage et la révolution brabançonne, Bruxelles 1930; H. J. Elias, Kerk en Staat in de zuidelijke Nederlanden onder de regering der aartshertogen Albrecht en Isabella (1598-1621), Anversa 1931; A. Verhagen, Le card. de Franckenberg, Lilla s. d.; E. de Moreau, Belgique, in DIIG, VII, coll. 520-756.

IV. LITERATURE — In Belgium, part of which was annexed to France under Louis XIV, the two ethnic groups, Flemish (of Dutch speech) and Walloon (of French speech), possess their own literatures, which, however, through cohabitation and intermarriage, harmonize in expressing with richness of color (the first more than the second, refined by the Latin genius) profound sentiments and aspirations for well-being, sometimes too material or sensual.

4. Flemish Literature

In the 13th century, didactic Flemish poetry is represented by Jacob van Maerlant, translator of French and Latin works, and mysticism by the religious Beatrice of Nazareth and Hadewijch, whose work in the 14th century was surpassed by the greatest mystic of the Low Countries, Bl. John van Ruysbroeck (d. 1381), with his masterpiece Die chierheit der gheesteliker Brulocht (The adornment of the spiritual marriage). The “Chambers of Rhetoric” (rederijkerskamers), associations whose purpose was the recitation and performance of mysteries, dramas, miracles, etc., persisted until the 17th century. The Renaissance with its individualism, Humanism with its return to classical antiquity, the Reformation with the rupture of religious unity, religious and political struggles, and finally the separation from Flanders of the northern United Provinces (Holland) — all these factors greatly influenced the literature of the 16th and 17th centuries. It was left to Classicism and later to other French cultural currents to act upon Flemish literature of the following century, which, however, marked a decline.

After Belgium became independent in 1830, Flemish literature flourished anew in reaction against French influence, and could boast of Jan Frans Willems (d. 1846), father of the movement itself, and Canon Jan David (d. 1866), as well as romantic and realist writers such as Hendrik Conscience (d. 1883), author of the famous De Leeuw van Vlaanderen (The Lion of Flanders), and August Snieders (d. 1904), among the most prolific and widely read. A host of writers followed, mostly of unmistakable Catholic faith and particularly interested in social problems; they were poets, playwrights, novelists, short story writers, critics, and historians. To West Flanders belong Guido Gezelle (d. 1899), a poet comparable to Vondel, the poet Albrecht Rodenbach (d. 1880), the short story writers Hugo Verriest (d. 1922) and Stijn Streuvels (pseud. of Frank Lateur). Among those who wrote in this century are also to be remembered Edward Vermeulen, Karel van de Woestijne (d. 1929), August Vermeylen (d. 1945), Maurits Sabbe (d. 1938), Maria Belpaire (d. 1948), Cyriel Verschaeve, Ernest Claes, Felix Timmermans (d. 1947), whose volume Pallieter was translated into various languages.

The development and dissemination of Flemish literature were also significantly aided by the journals Van Nu en Straks (founded in 1893) and Dietsche Warande en Belfort (founded in 1900), the latter distinctly Catholic. The journal Ons geestelijk Erf (founded in 1927), on the other hand, is devoted to the study of asceticism and mysticism flourishing in the Low Countries up to 1750.

5. French Literature

Apart from works written in Picard and Walloon dialects, French literature in Belgium begins in the 13th century with the chanson de geste of Adenet le Roi and the rhymed chronicle of Philippe Mousket, continuing in the 14th century with the chronicles of Jean le Bel and Jean Froissart (d. 1404), his brilliant continuator. Generous patrons in the 15th century were the four Dukes of Burgundy, from Philip the Bold (d. 1404) to Charles the Bold (d. 1477), who also possessed rich libraries. Notable historiographers of that century were Georges Chastellain (d. 1475), Jean Molinet (d. 1507), Jean Lemaire de Belges (d. 1524), and Philippe de Commines (d. 1511), the latter truly a modern writer. The same factors that influenced the evolution of Flemish literature in the 16th and 17th centuries also affected contemporary French literature; the Prince de Ligne (d. 1814) is the most important writer of the 18th century.

With the establishment of the kingdom (1830), a renewal of literature followed, which in the past century boasted the poet André Van Hasselt (d. 1874), the moralist Octave Pirmez (d. 1883), the novelist Charles De Coster (d. 1879), author of La légende d’Ulenspiegel; the historians Louis Gachard (d. 1885), Joseph Kervyn de Lettenhove, Léon Vanderkindere; the orators Charles Rogier (d. 1885), Hubert Frère-Orban (d. 1896), Auguste Beernaert (d. 1912), and Msgr. Charles Cartuyvels (d. 1907); the theologian Cardinal Victor Dechamps (d. 1883), Redemptorist, Archbishop of Mechelen.

A further renewal, initiated by militant university students, was fostered by the journal La Jeune Belgique (founded in 1881) of Max Waller (pseud. of Maurice Warlomont), Georges Rodenbach (d. 1920), Iwan Gilkin (d. 1926), and Albert Giraud, whose aims were summed up by the then much-debated formula “L’art pour l’art” and the motto “Ne crains,” later amended to “fors Dieu”; to these efforts was joined a group of young Catholics (Henri Moeller, Henri Carton de Wiart, etc.), to whom is owed the founding of the journal Durendal (founded in 1894).

Among the best writers of this century, though not always respectful of the Catholic faith and morals, are Camille Lemonnier (d. 1913), naturalist novelist; the distinguished poet Émile Verhaeren (d. 1916); the celebrated playwright Maurice Maeterlinck (d. 1920). We may also recall the poets, Canon Hector Hoornaert, Georges Rency, Alphonse Hardy; the playwrights Fernand Crommelynck, Gustave Van Zype; the novelists Edmond Picard (d. 1924), Edmond Glesener, Georges Virrès, Léopold Courouble, Henri Davignon; the short story writer Paul Demade; the critics Eugène Gilbert (d. 1919), Msgr. Schrygens (d. 1937), Firmin van den Bosch (d. 1949); the orators Auguste Beernaert (d. 1912), Charles Woeste (d. 1922); the historians Godefroid Kurth (d. 1916) and Henri Pirenne (d. 1935); the philosophers Maurice De Wulf (d. 1948) and Cardinal Désiré Mercier, Archbishop of Mechelen (d. 1926).

For art, V. FIAMMINGA, ARTE, ARTE.

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See ORDINAMENTOSCOLASTICO. — Belgian schooling is based on interconfessionalism and neutrality. Religion is compulsory, but exemption from religious instruction is granted to all who request II. Ten percent of pupils are exempted.

Preschool instruction is provided in kindergartens, which are divided among 1,290 communes: 1,040 Catholic, 1,336 private.

Schooling comprises primary, secondary, and university levels. Primary schools include 5,077 *écoles communales*, 1,971 *écoles adoptées*, 1,295 *écoles adoptables*, and *écoles privées*. The *école communale* is neutral and interconfessional; the *école adoptée* is a Catholic school under state jurisdiction, required to provide free instruction to a certain number of children. The *école adoptée* is a private school not under state jurisdiction, with teachers paid by the state. The *école privée* is not under state jurisdiction.

Secondary schools are divided into lower and upper levels, both for boys and girls. Lower secondary schools for boys include 89 state-run, 7 communal, 6 patronal, 41 religious, and 23 private. Lower secondary schools for girls include 46 state-run, 10 communal, 25 religious, and 26 private, lasting two years. From lower secondary schools, students proceed to upper-level schools called *athénées* or *collèges*. There are 26 *athénées*, 4 communal *collèges*, 9 patronal *collèges*, 61 diocesan *collèges*, 41 *collèges* run by religious orders, and 19 private *collèges*.

There are four universities: the Catholic University of Louvain, founded in 1835, reviving the traditions of the university founded in the same city in 1425; the Flemish University of Ghent, founded in 1806; the Free University of Brussels, founded in 1834; and the State University of Liège, founded in 1816. There are four state conservatories in Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and Liège, in addition to numerous municipal conservatories in major centers.

Teachers are trained in *écoles normales primaires*, which last five years and are divided into male and female primary normal schools. The former include 9 state-run, 5 communal, 17 diocesan, and 1 run by a religious order. The latter include 7 state-run, 7 communal, 36 diocesan, and 8 run by religious orders. The Catholic clergy are educated in the six diocesan seminaries and at the theological faculty of the University of Louvain.

Students intending to go to the colonies are trained at the Colonial University of Antwerp. — See Plate LXXIV.

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