CONGREGAZIONI ROMANE, SACRE

ROMAN CONGREGATIONS, SACRED. — Permanent commissions of cardinals for the handling of Church affairs.

Summary: I. The C. in general. — II. The individual C. in particular. —

III. The suppressed C

IV. The C. in the civil administration of the Papal State.

I. The C. in general.

1. Historical notions

The task of the Supreme Pontiff, as bishop of the entire Catholic Church, in the universal government expanded and intensified over the centuries as the number and importance of the matters to be referred to him increased.

With regard to this organization, it is possible to establish three periods: from the 1st to the 10th century, the period of the presbyterium and synods; from the 11th to the 16th century, the period of consistories; from the 16th century to the present, the period of the C.

Even during the persecutions, the popes, assisted by their presbyterium, composed of the entire Roman clergy, made decisions concerning both Rome and even distant Churches, as is clearly evident from a letter of St. Cornelius, Pope, in 251, to St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. The presbyterium certainly included bishops, priests, and deacons who happened to be in Rome at the time. For matters of greater importance, and especially when it was a question of condemning an error or deposing a guilty bishop, the Supreme Pontiff would summon around him the neighboring bishops of the Roman province or, depending on the circumstances, bishops from other parts of Italy or abroad who could easily communicate with Rome. This was then the Roman synod or council.

Around the year 1000, when the Church was already engaged in a remarkable activity of internal pacification and organization, followed by a strong external expansion, the Concistorium D.ni Papae (v. consistory) assumed ever greater importance. Composed, at least predominantly, of cardinals (v.), it began to meet periodically. Alongside the consistory, the Auditorium Papae also became established for handling lesser matters reserved to prelates. The increased importance of the affairs flowing to the Holy See, particularly those of a benefice-related nature (which had become almost innumerable following the reservation of benefices during and after the Avignon period), rendered the consistory and the chancery inadequate to handle the manifold and varied matters, so that a division of labor and competence among the various cardinals became necessary. These cardinals were grouped into collegial bodies, mostly permanent, which were called C.

The first C., i.e., a group of cardinals permanently deputed to handle a given matter, was the S. Congregatio Inquisitionis, established by Paul III on 21 July 1542 (constitution Licet) for the defense of the faith, which was so threatened by the Protestant Reformation. Later, Pius IV entrusted a group of eight cardinals (later increased to twelve) with the task of ensuring the execution of the Tridentine canons, thus giving rise to the C. of the Council. Two more were created: by St. Pius V, the C. of the Index, and by Gregory XIII, the C. for Bishops' Affairs. Temporary C. with limited authority were created according to special needs, such as the C. for German Affairs established by Pius V in 1568. But it was truly Sixtus V who organically created the Roman C. with his constitution Immensa aeterni Dei (Bullarium Romanum, VIII, Turin 1863, pp. 985-99) of 22 January 1588, in which he laid down those guiding principles that have substantially endured through the centuries. Sixtus V did not thereby abolish or diminish the prestige of the consistory, which he himself presided over every Wednesday, but he wished to ensure, through a rational division of labor, greater diligence and efficiency in the handling of matters by persons specifically competent in each field. The C. created or confirmed by Sixtus V were fifteen: five already existed, namely those of the Inquisition, the Index, the Council, Bishops' Affairs, and the C. of Regulars, created by Sixtus V himself on 17 May 1586; six concerned not the general administration of the Church but that of the Papal State: the C. of the Navy, of the Roman University or Sapienza, of the Annona or Abundance of the Ecclesiastical State, of Waters and Roads, for the regulation of taxes, in addition to the Supreme Tribunal of the Consulta; new ones, concerning the government of the Church, were the C. of the Consistory, which had charge of inquiries into candidates for the episcopate and the High Supervision of dioceses, the C. for Rites and Ceremonies, that entrusted with the Vatican Printing House, and finally the C. for the Signature of Grace (concerning the constitution Immensa cf. Pastor, X, pp. 181-93).

II. MODIFICATIONS INTRODUCED BY THE CIC

With the Sapienti consilio of 29 June 1908 by Pius X, which was reproduced with few modifications by the CIC, the Roman Congregations have assumed substantially the form they still retain, which can be described in general terms as follows.

It should be noted first of all that the term "congregation" is used with two different meanings. The first indicates the assembly of cardinals, which takes place at fixed times and is also called the full or plenary congregation, indeed in ordinary language "plenaria" (from the Latin plenaria comitia); the second, which is the one under discussion here, indicates the individual dicastery or office with its cardinal prefect and the body of officials attached to II.
The seat of most of the C. has been, since 1936, the palace built for this purpose by Pius XI near S. Maria in Trastevere and S. Callisto, after the transfer from the Chancery. Here are located the C. of the Consistory, of the Sacraments, of the Council, of Rites, of Religious, of Seminaries and of Universities. On the other hand, the C. of Propaganda Fide continues to reside in the historic palace in Piazza di Spagna; the C. for the Oriental Church in the Palazzo dei Convertendi, rebuilt on Via della Conciliazione; the Holy Office in its eponymous palace; and finally the S. C. for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs continues to use the premises on the top floor of the Logge in the Vatican. The C. of Ceremonial is also housed in the Vatican Palace.

III. PERSONNEL

The personnel of the C. is divided into two categories: major officials and minor officials. The first category includes: a) the cardinals, one of whom is prefect or secretary (he is called secretary in the three C. of the Holy Office, the Consistory, and for the Oriental Church, because the prefect of these dicasteries is the Pope); the others, generally not more than about twenty for each C., of whom about half reside in the Curia, participate and vote in the plenary sessions; b) the secretary (assessor in the three aforementioned C.); c) the undersecretary (in some institutions).

The secretary (or respectively the assessor) is the true head of the office, director of the services. By decree of the S. C. of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 (AAS, 33 [1931], p. 22), the secretaries or assessors were granted the title of Most Reverend Excellency.

Immediately below the secretary comes the undersecretary (appointed in the C. of the Consistory and the Oriental Church; with the exception of that of Rites, which has its own character; the S. C. of the Sacraments has two undersecretaries; in the Holy Office, in place of the substitute, there is the Father Commissioner, a Dominican, who has his own specific duties). The secretary and the undersecretary (or respectively the assessor and the substitute) are appointed directly by the Holy Father, having ordinarily heard the cardinal prefect of the C.

Minor officials include: minute-writers or study assistants, clerical staff, all priests (with rare exceptions) who hold degrees in theology or canon law. According to the *Sapienti consilio* they should be admitted only after a regular written examination, though the Pope sometimes dispenses with this examination and directly appoints a particular minute-writer or study assistant (the Propaganda, the Oriental Congregation, and the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs use the first title, while all other Congregations have study assistants, some of whom are qualified adjuncts with duties practically no different from the others), upon the proposal of the Cardinal Prefect in a letter signed by the same Cardinal.

When required, the activity of the minute-writers is usually divided by geographical areas (notably in the Propaganda, the Consistorial Congregation, the Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, and in part also in the Congregations for the Council, the Oriental, and Seminaries). Where this criterion cannot be applied, as in the Congregation for the Sacraments, competence is distributed by subject matter. Sometimes the geographical division is subordinate to the subject matter.

There are also scribes and copyists who handle the transcription of letters and the compilation of registers. Archivists are responsible for the preservation and retrieval of documents.

The department of the treasury and the taxation of various registers and cases is managed by the cashier, accountants, and registrars, mostly laymen, often called distributors or dispatchers. It is, however, the duty of the study assistant to set the amount of the registry fee, which he must also assign. When a case passes through the hands of the agent (v. S. C), who acts as a solicitor or mandatary (since most bishops use the postal service directly), the agent is responsible for fixing the fee. Today every Congregation sends the proceeds collected daily to the Administration of the Property of the Holy See, except for the Holy Office and the Propaganda, which administer their own affairs autonomously. It should be noted, however, that the Propaganda conducts all its business “gratis quocumque titulo.”

Among the lay staff are also the ushers, who are responsible for office order, cleaning, and the delivery of documents within and outside the Congregation.

Before taking up their duties, all officials must take an oath of fidelity and secrecy. Many cases are indeed secret (reserved, sub secreto, etc.); this obligation is greatest in the Consistorial Congregation and the Holy Office, the violation of whose secrecy can only be absolved by the Supreme Pontiff personally.

Although they are not officials of the Congregations, the consultors of the Sacred Congregations (v.) perform a very important task. A subspecies of these are the commissioners, members of commissions established, for example, in the Congregations for the Sacraments and the Oriental, especially for the decision or defense of the bond in cases of matrimonial dispensation or Sacred Orders. The commissioners for decisions meet on fixed dates, in a group of three, under the presidency of the Secretary or Assessor, to read their votes and make the relevant decision.

The principal aim of the *Sapienti consilio* was to free the Congregations from contentious matters, which were assigned to the renewed Sacred Rota. However, for the handling of certain causes, such as those concerning the validity or nullity of a Sacrament like Ordination and Matrimony, or the consummation or non-consummation of the latter, the strictly judicial or contentious procedure cannot be applied except with strong restrictions and modifications that safeguard the preeminent interests of the Sacrament; and so even after 1908 some Congregations—particularly the Congregation for the Sacraments, the Holy Office, and the Oriental Congregation—must devote much of their activity to the conduct of such processes.

The resolution of conflicts of competence between the various dicasteries, which the *Sapienti consilio* had entrusted to the Consistorial Congregation, now belongs, by virtue of can. 245 of the *Codex Iuris Canonici*, to a cardinal commission appointed from time to time by the Holy Father—a practice that has occurred only very rarely.

IV. THE HANDLING OF AFFAIRS

As regards the handling of individual cases, it is difficult to present the practice of each dicastery in a comprehensive overview, since it varies from Congregation to Congregation according to the subject matter and the will of the Prefect or Secretary.

It may be said, however, that routine matters are handled immediately by the minute-writer and with a letter or report signed by the Prefect or even only by the Secretary. Matters of some importance or those exceeding the ordinary faculties of the office, however, are referred to a meeting (congresso), an assembly of the Prefect, Secretary, Undersecretaries, and study assistants, which is supposed to take place every week. After the minute-writer’s report and discussion, a decision is made. All the most serious matters, to be dealt with later in the plenary sessions of the Cardinals, are referred to the meeting. The positions for the plenary session are all printed and delivered to the Cardinals ten or twenty days before the meeting. The Cardinal ponens, instead of the mere printed matter (which consists of the so-called foglio d’ufficio in Latin or Italian, containing a summary of the case and a brief outline), also has the complete original. In the plenary session the Cardinals sit, presided over by the Prefect of the Sacred Congregation, according to the order of their precedence, and the ponens reads or delivers his reasoned vote, after which the others do likewise. The Secretary records the votes and reports on the discussion in an audience with the Holy Father, to whom the final decision belongs; and the Pope, if he sees fit, confirms the decision taken by the Cardinals by a majority vote and orders its execution. The decisions of the plenary sessions may be admitted to a new discussion upon the granting of the *beneficium novae audientiae*, a new presentation of the case in view of new elements that have emerged; if, however, the decision has been approved by the Pope, an express permission of the Pope himself, called “aperitio oris” (v. CURIA), is required for such a new discussion.

THE SACRED CONGREGATIONS – THEIR AUTHORITY AND ACTS

As regards the authority of the Sacred Congregations and the juridical value of their acts, it may be said that they are primarily administrative and governing organs, although at times they also perform judicial functions and issue genuine laws. When promulgating the 1917 Code of Canon Law, Benedict XV, by the motu proprio *Cum iuris* of 15 September 1917, established a commission of cardinals for the authentic interpretation of the Code. Before responding to matters of greater importance, however, this commission must consult the Congregation to which the canon in question belongs. Benedict XV further decreed: “Henceforth, the Sacred Congregations shall not issue new general decrees unless grave necessity of the Church so requires. Their ordinary function shall therefore be to ensure that the prescriptions of the Code are religiously observed and, where necessary, to issue instructions that clarify and render more effective the Code’s prescriptions, appearing almost as a commentary upon them. Finally, should the universal good of the Church, with the passage of time, require that a general decree be issued by any Congregation which conflicts with the Code, the Supreme Pontiff shall be informed of the discrepancy, and upon the decree’s approval, the Code Commission shall amend or modify the relevant canons of the Code.” This modification of the 1917 Code has occurred expressly only once, and not through the action of a Sacred Congregation, but by a pontifical decree (the motu proprio of 1 August 1948, which abrogated the second sentence of canon 1909 §2: cf. *AAS*, 40 [1948], pp. 305–306); yet in fact, many parts of the Code itself have been more or less deeply affected in these years. Since, according to canon 244, not only are the resolutions of the Sacred Congregations always approved by the Holy Father, but he must also be informed of any “grave or extraordinary act” which a Congregation intends to undertake, the Pope, in the fullness of his authority, authorizes the competent Sacred Congregation, when necessary, to legislate, judge, and otherwise act within its assigned sphere.

It should be recalled, finally, that according to canon 7, the Sacred Congregations are listed under the name of the Apostolic See immediately after the person of the Supreme Pontiff, of whom they are the first and immediate organ.

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II. THE INDIVIDUAL CONGREGATIONS IN PARTICULAR

### 1. SACRED CONGREGATION OF THE HOLY OFFICE

#### 1. Historical Notes

The Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, known until 1908 as the “Sacred Roman and Universal Inquisition,” was established by Paul III through the apostolic constitution *Licet ab initio* of 21 July 1542.

It should not, therefore, be confused with the medieval Inquisition tribunals (v. **INQUISITION**), nor with the Spanish Inquisition, which had distinct origins and purposes.

With the rise of the new heresies of Calvin and Luther, which were devastating the most flourishing Christian communities of Europe, Pope Paul III deemed it indispensable to appoint cardinals as commissioners or general inquisitors, who were authorized to proceed against all apostates, heretics, those suspected of heresy, their accomplices, supporters, and followers, even without the intervention of local Ordinaries.

The general inquisitors could appoint a fiscal promoter, notaries, and delegates in various nations or individual dioceses. However, neither the cardinal inquisitors nor their delegates could impose or remit penalties, for this authority was reserved to the Pope.

The cardinal inquisitors could hear appeals from sentences rendered in first instance by their delegates and, in such cases, absolve the guilty from censures and other ecclesiastical penalties. No one was exempt from their jurisdiction, though sentences against cardinals and higher prelates were pronounced by the Pope in consistory (constitution of Pius IV, 12 April 1563).

The examination and condemnation of books were also entrusted to the general inquisitors, who were authorized by Pius IV, through the motu proprio *Cum inter crimina* of 27 August 1564, to read any prohibited book during their office and to grant the required license to others, but only by a decision taken in plenary congregation.

Established by Pius V in 1571, the Congregation of the Index (v. below: **Suppressed Congregations**) was assigned the examination and condemnation of books tainted with heresy. The Inquisition was the subject of numerous constitutions by Pius IV and Pius V, which expanded its competence, but it received its definitive structure, together with the Congregation of the Index, from Sixtus V through the constitution *Immensa aeterni Dei* of 22 January 1588.

Pius X, by the apostolic constitution *Sapienti consilio* of 29 June 1908, suppressed the Congregation of Indulgences and transferred all its competences to the Holy Office. He then reserved to the Congregation of the Council matters concerning the observance of Church precepts, to the Consistorial Congregation the election of bishops, to the Sacred Congregation of Religious the dispensation from vows taken in religious orders or congregations, to the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments the legislation on the discipline of the sacraments, excepting matters relating to the Pauline privilege and dispensations from impediments of mixed religion and disparity of cult.

Benedict XV, by the motu proprio *Alloquentes* of 25 March 1917, assigned to the Apostolic Penitentiary the competence regarding the granting and use of indulgences, leaving only doctrinal matters to the Holy Office, to which the Congregation of the Index was annexed as a mere section. The 1917 Code of Canon Law neither altered its composition nor its competence.

At present, the Holy Office is the first Roman Congregation in importance due to the nature of the issues it handles and decides; the appellation “Supreme,” however, appears for the first time in the *Annuario Pontificio* of 1927.

#### 2. Personnel

The Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office consists of several cardinals, known as general inquisitors, who meet in plenary assembly every Wednesday under the presidency of the cardinal secretary; the prefecture is reserved to the Pope (canon 247 §1).

Immediately following in rank is the assessor, a prelate of equal standing to the secretaries of the other dicasteries. Formerly, the assessor was a secular priest and canonical advisor to the general commissioner.

At the head of the investigative section for criminal cases is the commissary general, a member of the Order of Preachers, assisted by two companions (v. **COMMISSARY**).

The assessor and the commissary general are major officials (*Ordo Servandus*, etc., c. VII, 19), while the others are minor officials.

However, those who take part in the particular congregation held on Saturdays—along with the cardinal secretary, the assessor, and the commissary general—are the promoter of justice (formerly called the fiscal promoter since 1920) and the first companion of the commissary general. These officials are appointed by the Holy Father through a note from the Secretariat of State; hence, they too may be numbered among the major officials.

Some of the consultors are such by reason of their office, such as the Master General of the Dominicans and the Master of the Sacred Palace; the others are appointed by the Holy Father, who chooses them from among the most celebrated theologians and canonists residing in Rome. They meet every Monday under the presidency of the Assessor, and in his absence, of the Father Commissary or the First Companion.

The appointment of the Qualifiers, consultors for the examination and condemnation of books, is likewise reserved to the Holy Father. The officials are the Substitute of the Index, two assistants, the notary and substitute notaries. There are also the King’s Advocate, the Defender of the Bond, the Master of the House and Economus of the Curia and the Apostolic Palace, an archivist, two registrars, and several scribes.

3. Competence

The Holy Office has exclusive competence over doctrine concerning Faith and morals and the validity of the Sacraments.

It judges and punishes heresy and all crimes directly or indirectly related to it, such as adherence to the sixth Masonic degree and to other societies condemned by the Church, and remits the corresponding penalties. To it are reserved the examination and condemnation of books, the granting of permission to read prohibited books, and the issuance of norms and instructions in this regard.

It judges, in a single instance or as an appellate tribunal, priests and religious accused of solicitation (v. SOLICITATION) in confession or of committing acts of lust against nature or upon an impudent person, or of adherence to a non-Catholic sect; it handles cases concerning the Pauline privilege and mixed marriages, and in general every matrimonial cause in which one of the parties is non-Catholic; likewise, only the Holy Office may authorize a non-Catholic to appear before ecclesiastical tribunals. To it are referred questions and causes concerning the nullity of Holy Orders due to substantial defect in the rite (can. 1993 § 1).

Only the Holy Office may dispense from the impediments of mixed religion and disparity of cult, from the irregularities sanctioned in can. 985 nn. 1, 2 and 3 (marriage attempted by a cleric or religious before a civil official), from the impediment referred to in can. 987 n. 1; it may absolve from excommunications specially reserved to the Holy See, except that sanctioned in can. 2367, and remit penalties imposed in can. 2335-36 (enrollment in the sixth Masonic degree and other condemned societies), 2363 (calumnious accusation of a priest of solicitation in confession), 2371 (simony), 2372 (ordination received from an apostate, heretical or schismatic bishop), 2388 § 1 (attempted marriage by a religious or priest before a civil official) and 2399 (simony regarding ecclesiastical benefices, offices or dignities), if the simony is of divine right.

Finally, exclusive competence over the eucharistic fast of priests, both secular and religious, in relation to the celebration of the Holy Mass, is attributed to the Holy Office.

The competence of the Holy Office has no territorial or personal limits, except for cardinals withdrawn from its jurisdiction by Sixtus V in the constitution Immensa aeterni Dei; hence even religious are judged by the Holy Office, and in the first instance not by their superiors but by the Ordinary of the place, excluding the vicar general.

The inquisitors and officials of the Holy Office are bound to observe the most rigorous secrecy regarding all matters treated in the sacred tribunal.

II. S. C. CONCISTORIAL. —

I. Origins and Development

Among the Congregations newly established by the constitution Immensa of Sixtus V of 22 Jan. 1588 was the Congregatio pro Erectione Ecclesiarum et Provisionibus Consistorialibus, which, by importance, was assigned third place, immediately after the Congregations of the Inquisition and the Signature of Grace, of which the pope was prefect. The name of this new Congregation was soon abbreviated to Congregatio Rebus Consistorialibus Praeposita, pending the simpler title of Congregatio Consistorialis, which was to remain.

Already from the 12th century the Holy See had taken to itself the examination and decision regarding the erection of dioceses, previously left to the initiative and discretionary power of the bishops of the provinces concerned. Later, from the 14th century, the popes reserved to themselves the provision of episcopal promotions under the threefold form of free appointment, confirmation of chapter election or canonical institution following presentation.

Both the erection of dioceses and the appointment of bishops naturally fell within the competence of the consistory, together with other causae consistoriales, namely those most important both from the administrative and judicial points of view.

Sixtus V, in creating the Congregation Consistorial, intended to provide the consistory with a technical council or specifically qualified body for the matters to be treated, without modifying its previous attributions, and declared: “In consistorio secreto iuxta formam in hanc diem servatum proponantur.” The new Congregation was soon to undergo modifications of no small importance.

Innocent XI (1676-89), with a view to providing in particular for the dioceses of Italy, established the Congregation for the Election of Bishops, assigning as its secretary his auditor. This new Congregation in turn underwent several modifications and was subsequently reconfirmed by Benedict XIV (constitution Ad Apostolicae servitutis, 17 Oct. 1740) and by Leo XIII (constitution Immortalis memoriae, 21 Sept. 1878), before taking on, in 1900, the title of Commissio Cardinalitia de eligendis Episcopis Italiae.

While the provision of residential sees in Italy remained in fact entrusted to the Auditorship, that of residential sees abroad, outside mission territories, at the beginning of the 19th century was entrusted to the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs (Pius VII, 18 June 1814).

Pius X, by motu proprio of 17 Dec. 1903, in order to unify the discipline of the appointment of residential bishops in Italy, suppressed the cardinalitial commission for the election of bishops in Italy, together with the ancient Congregation for the Examination of Bishops, instituted by Clement VIII in 1592; and their respective competences were transferred to the Congregation of the Holy Office.

This was followed by the reform of the Roman Curia, carried out by the same pope Pius X with the constitution Sapienti consilio of 29 June 1908. Until that time, competence over bishops in places subject to common law was distributed among the Congregation Consistorial for the appointment of titular bishops, the Holy Office for the appointment of residential bishops in Italy, and the Congregations of Bishops and Regulars and of the Council, which had cumulative competence over diocesan governance of bishops (the S. C. of Bishops and Regulars had arisen, at least from the beginning of the 17th century, from the merger of the S. C. on the Consultation of Bishops and the S. C. on the Consultation of Regulars, instituted respectively by Pius V with a brief of 13 Feb. 1572, and by Sixtus V with a brief of 17 May 1586; it seems, however, that the first of these two already existed under Gregory XIII).

The need and utility of reuniting the various branches of the ancient trunk was felt. This was provided for by the reform of Pius X. The CIC merely preserved, apart from a few details, the structure so well defined by Sapienti consilio.

2. Jurisdiction

The present jurisdiction of the Consistorial Congregation is substantially identical in its twofold object—bishops and dioceses—to its original jurisdiction (CIC, can. 248). However, whereas previously the Consistorial Congregation was concerned only with preparatory and executive acts for episcopal appointments, and once the appointment was made bishops came under the jurisdiction of the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars and that of the Council, now instead the Consistorial Congregation has personal and complete jurisdiction over bishops. It prepares acts of provision, selects candidates, and proposes them to the Holy Father for approval and appointment; it monitors the activity of bishops, exercises vigilance and oversight over the governance of their dioceses and the economic status of episcopal sees, examines the quinquennial reports submitted by bishops to the Holy See, and grants them quinquennial faculties. This applies, however, only to Latin dioceses of common law.

It also appoints, with the approval of the Holy Father, coadjutors, auxiliary bishops, apostolic administrators, apostolic visitors, and particular ordinaries such as the military ordinary.

With regard to dioceses—including prelatures and abbacies *nullius*—its jurisdiction extends to the erection, union, division, suppression of dioceses, the rectification of diocesan boundaries, the establishment of cathedral or collegiate chapters, and other measures pertaining to the constitution, preservation, and status of dioceses. This jurisdiction has been notably expanded in scope, since in recent times not a few territories previously dependent on the Congregation of Propaganda Fide have been placed under common law and thus under the Consistorial Congregation.

When, however, the appointment of residential bishops, coadjutors with the right of succession, military and palatine ordinaries, or the erection of dioceses in places where common law prevails requires diplomatic dealings with civil governments in accordance with concordats or conventions, the jurisdiction belongs to the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, while the Consistorial Congregation retains the preparation of executive acts and jurisdiction over diocesan governance.

In addition to dioceses, the Consistorial Congregation has direct oversight of apostolic delegations within its jurisdiction (Great Britain, the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Philippines).

Another duty incumbent upon it is the preparation of acts for the secret consistory: a task now secondary, since this consistory serves merely to publish or preconize new episcopal appointments already approved, and, in partial preservation of ancient tradition, it also includes the simple proclamation of appointments already approved and published after the previous consistory. Thus the Consistorial Congregation prepares, for the other interested congregations as well, lists of these promotions together with a note of the postulations for sacred pallia. It also issues invitations to bishops for participation in the semi-public consistory and the solemn ceremony of canonization of saints.

Finally, it attends to the spiritual assistance of emigrants insofar as this falls indirectly under diocesan governance, and to the discipline of the clergy among emigrants (motu proprio *Cum omnes* of Pius X, 15 August 1912).

It should also be recalled that the section for seminaries, formerly attached to it, was separated and erected into an independent Congregation together with that for studies by the motu proprio *Seminariorum clericorum* of Benedict XV, 4 November 1915.

The faculty, granted to it by *Sapienti consilio*, to settle disputes or doubts of jurisdiction among the dicasteries of the Roman Curia is, by the CIC (can. 245), entrusted to a cardinal commission appointed ad hoc by the Pope, as already noted.

3. Constitution

The Consistorial Congregation retains the constitution established by *Sapienti consilio*.

Its prefect is the Supreme Pontiff; its immediate superior is a cardinal with the title of Secretary; its members include several cardinals, among whom, ex officio, are the Cardinal Secretary of the Holy Office, the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation of Seminaries and Universities of Studies, and the Cardinal Secretary of State.

The senior officials who assist the Cardinal Secretary are the Assessor and the Substitute.

The Assessor *pro tempore* is, as before, Secretary of the Sacred College and, during a conclave, exercises the functions of Secretary of State and Secretary of the Conclave (Apostolic Constitution *Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis* of Pius XII, 8 December 1945, no. 19; Constitution *Sapienti consilio*, I, 2, 6). He is also a *consultor* *ex officio* of the Congregation of Seminaries and Universities of Studies.

In addition to the senior officials, there are junior officials attached to the sections and offices; finally, there is a college of consultors, among whom are *consultores nati* the Assessor of the Holy Office, the Secretary of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, and the Secretary of the Congregation of Seminaries and Universities of Studies.

All those who belong to the Congregation are bound, by oath, in addition to the general secrecy, to the particular secrecy known as that of the Holy Office with regard to everything concerning the appointment of bishops and other ordinaries, as well as the erection or union of dioceses. This secrecy is perpetual and applies even toward persons belonging to the same Congregation who are bound by the same secrecy but do not reside habitually in Rome.

The same perpetual secrecy is imposed by the Congregation on ecclesiastics from whom it seeks information regarding candidates for promotion.

4. Procedure

At present, the form of procedure is purely administrative, never judicial. It varies according to the importance of the matters in question. For the more important matters, such as the provision of sees—whether residential or titular—and the erection of dioceses, the relevant processes and acts are first prepared.

The ancient canonical process, in external form, concerning candidates for promotion, has not been in use since 3 November 1908 and was expressly abolished, even for foreign cases, by the consistorial decree of 29 February 1924; it has been replaced by a secret and thorough inquiry conducted by the Congregation directly and, abroad, through nuncios and apostolic delegates, which better ensures secrecy, security, and the reliability of information. Likewise abolished from the same date, 3 November 1908, is the examination of candidates for promotion.

Once the investigation is complete, the matter is discussed in a general or plenary meeting of the Congregation, attended by the cardinals belonging to the dicastery; when the matter concerns another Congregation at the same time, especially that of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, proceedings are conducted in consultation and, when necessary, in a joint plenary session.

Matters of ordinary importance are usually handled in the officials’ meeting, presided over by the Cardinal Secretary, and decided by the Cardinal himself by virtue of the habitual faculties belonging to the Congregation.

All the deliberations of the general Congregations, as well as the matters submitted *ex audientia Sanctissimi*, are reported to the Holy Father for approval by the Cardinal Secretary in the customary weekly audience.

### III. Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Church

#### 1. Historical Notes

The origins of this Congregation are intertwined, until 1862, with those of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. Indeed, Gregory XIII, in 1573, founded a Congregation under the name of *Congregatio de Rebus Graecorum* and entrusted it with the task of maintaining and propagating the Catholic faith among Eastern Christians. Clement VIII (1592–1605), expanding the scope of this Congregation, entrusted it, under the name *Congregatio super Negotiis Fidei et Religionis Catholicae*, with the care of propagating the faith, even among Latins. Finally, with the apostolic letter *Inscrutabili* of 22 June 1622, Gregory XV established the *Congregatio de Propaganda Fide*, to which was entrusted the care of all Catholic missions, both in the East and in the West.

The particular needs of the Eastern Churches led Urban VIII to establish, within the same general Congregation of Propaganda Fide, two commissions or, as they were then called, Congregations: one *Super dubiis Orientalium* (1627), and another *Super correctione Euchologii Graecorum* (1636), which, in 1717, by order of Clement XI, became a stable and distinct Congregation, *Super correctione Librorum Orientalium*. Due to the increasing affairs of the East, which required ever more specialized care and specific knowledge, Pius IX, with the constitution *Romani Pontifices* of 6 January 1862, established within the same Congregation of Propaganda Fide a special Congregation titled *Congregatio de Propaganda Fide pro Negotiis Ritus Orientalis*, presided over by the same Prefect of the Congregation of Propaganda Fide, but with its own Secretary, distinct consultors, officials, and archives. With the *motu proprio* *Dei providentis* of 1 May 1917 (AAS, 9 [1917], pp. 529–31), Benedict XV, acceding to a desire repeatedly expressed by Eastern dignitaries and wishing to give the Easterners a new sign of the Holy See’s benevolence toward them, made this Congregation independent, creating the new *Congregatio pro Ecclesia Orientali*, whose prefecture he reserved for himself and his successors.

On 20 June 1925, Pius XI established within this Congregation a special *Commissio pro Russia* (AAS, 18 [1926], p. 62), which, on 6 April 1930, was made independent (AAS, 22 [1930], pp. 153–54), and then, on 21 December 1934 (AAS, 27 [1935], pp. 65–67), was annexed to the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, with limited competence over Latin-rite faithful residing in Russia.

Within the Congregation for the Eastern Church, a special commission, established by rescripts of the audience of 24 March and 5 May 1928, deals with matrimonial causes, and another (audience of 8 February 1930) with liturgical matters.

#### 2. Competence

According to canons 257 §§ 1 and 2 of the *Codex Iuris Canonici*, “all matters of any kind concerning persons, discipline, and rites of the Eastern Churches, including mixed affairs—that is, those which, by their object or the persons involved, also concern Latins—are reserved to this Congregation.” Consequently, this Congregation, with regard to the Eastern-rite Churches, possesses all the faculties that the other Congregations have for the Latin-rite Churches, except for the rights of the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, in accordance with canon 247. The competence of the Congregation for the Eastern Church is personal, in that it extends to all faithful enrolled in an Eastern rite, wherever they may be; it is also territorial, in that it is exercised in regions where a hierarchy of the Eastern rite is established. Excluded from its competence, in addition to matters falling under the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, are the attributions of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities of Studies concerning universities, faculties, and institutes (Pius XI, constitution *Deus scientiarum Dominus*, 24 May 1931, art. 4 ff., in AAS, 23 [1931], p. 248), as well as the proper competence of the tribunal of the Sacred Penitentiary, both for the internal forum (response of 26 July 1930, in AAS, 22 [1930], p. 394) and for the use of indulgences (notification of 21 July 1935, in AAS, 27 [1935], p. 379).

To this Sacred Congregation—unlike the other Congregations in general after the publication of the new *Codex Iuris Canonici* (cf. Benedict XV’s *motu proprio* *Cum iuris canonici*, 15 September 1917, n. 2)—appears to be attributed true legislative power. It certainly possesses, in addition to administrative power, also judicial power (canon 257 § 3).

With the *motu proprio* of Pius XI, *Sancta Dei Ecclesia*, of 25 March 1938 (AAS, 30 [1938], pp. 154–159), in order to unify the governance and apostolic work in all Eastern countries, the Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Church was granted full and exclusive jurisdiction over all faithful, hierarchies, works, institutions, and even societies, whether of Latin or Eastern rite, in the following regions: Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, southern Albania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, the Dodecanese, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Transjordan, Asiatic Turkey, and Turkish Thrace. The Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Church, with regard to Latins under its jurisdiction by virtue of the aforementioned *motu proprio* *Sancta Dei Ecclesia*, exercises those powers that the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith previously had and exercised over them.

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### IV. Sacred Congregation for the Discipline of the Sacraments

This dicastery holds first place after those presided over personally by the Supreme Pontiff and was created anew by the constitution *Sapienti consilio* of 29 June 1908.

The *Codex Iuris Canonici* (canon 249) confirms, with almost no modifications, the competence assigned to the Sacred Congregation in 1908.

As its title indicates, it deals with matters concerning the administration and safeguarding of the Sacraments, except for those matters falling under the jurisdiction of the Holy Office—such as questions of faith, the Pauline privilege, and mixed marriages—and the Sacred Congregation of Rites, insofar as ceremonial matters are concerned.

Before 1908, the matters handled by this Sacred Congregation largely belonged to the Sacred Congregation of the Council, as well as to the Dataria and the Penitentiary.

In reality, the majority of its activity revolves around marriage. One of its offices (specifically, Office III) handles dispensations from marriage impediments, which are very frequent, particularly for consanguinity and affinity; prior to 1908, such dispensations were granted to the wealthy by the Apostolic Dataria and to the poor by the Apostolic Penitentiary.

The same office also deals with the convalidation and sanation in radice of marriages initially null due to some impediment or defect of form, the legitimation of children, and, in general, matters concerning the contracting of marriage.

Office II has been particularly active in recent years, studying and resolving cases related to the dispensation of unconsummated marriages.

The diocesan curias throughout the Catholic world (with the sole exception of those of the Eastern rites which depend on the Congregation of the same name) must obtain the faculty from the Sacred Congregation before initiating an investigation into such cases, to which they then remit the acts of the relevant process for a decision. In order to study such causes, which are handled in an administrative form and without the intervention of advocates, given their increasing number, the Sacred Congregation, after issuing the extensive instruction *Catholica doctrina* of 7 May 1923 (AAS, 15 [1923], pp. 389 ff.), established special commissions of consultors who meet frequently to decide whether it is advisable to propose to the Holy Father the granting of a dispensation in individual cases. Some of these causes are decided in the plenary meeting of cardinals, which ordinarily takes place every month.

It is then the sole and personal prerogative of the Supreme Pontiff, upon the report of the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation or of the Secretary, to grant or refuse the dispensation by which, in virtue of his ministerial power, he dissolves from without such marriages as would otherwise be intrinsically indissoluble.

Other matters handled by Office II include cases of presumed death of a spouse, separation, and the like.

In 1939, a special office for oversight and statistics regarding the matrimonial tribunals of the entire Latin Church was created within the Sacred Congregation. This office, headed by an Undersecretary, is responsible for ensuring that the norms of the instruction *Provida* of 15 August 1936 (AAS, 28 [1936], pp. 313–61) are observed in tribunals handling marriage nullity cases and that the rights of the sacrament are duly safeguarded. Special oversight is exercised over the regional tribunals of Italy established by the *motu proprio* *Qua Cura* of 8 December 1938 (AAS, 30 [1938], pp. 410–13), as well as over compliance with the instruction *Sacrosanctum* of 29 June 1941 (AAS, 33 [1941], pp. 297–318) regarding the procedures to be followed before the celebration of marriages and the keeping of parish records, with the aim of eliminating, as far as possible, the celebration of invalid marriages.

The first office deals with all the remaining sacraments except Matrimony. Its work is primarily absorbed by matters concerning sacred ordinations, on which the instruction *Quam ingens* was issued on 27 December 1930 (AAS, 23 [1931], pp. 120–29) regarding the diligence to be observed before admitting clerics to Orders, including the obligation of specific interrogations or examinations.

Moreover, the office handles dispensations from the prescribed age for the presbyterate, from other moral or physical impediments to Orders, and so forth. It also decides cases of nullity of ordinations or related obligations, after the processes concerning them, authorized from time to time by the Sacred Congregation, have been conducted in the respective diocesan curias according to the *Regulae Servandae* imposed by the decree of 9 June 1931 (AAS, 23 [1931], pp. 457–92).

A broad field of activity for the first office is also the regulation of the Holy Mass, including the faculties to celebrate two or three Masses, to celebrate at unusual hours or at sea, in private homes, and thus the granting of private oratories for priests and laity. This is followed by eucharistic worship, on which the instruction *Nullo unquam* was issued on 26 May 1938 (AAS, 30 [1938], pp. 198–207), *De sanctissima Eucharistia sedulo custodienda*, with the principal aim of eliminating the danger of profanations of the Most Holy Sacrament; in cases where such profanations occur, bishops are obliged to report to the Sacred Congregation for the ascertainment of any responsibility and the adoption of appropriate measures.

There are numerous dispensations from the eucharistic fast for the faithful who, due to illness, could not receive Communion (though not for priests celebrating Mass, for whom this falls under the competence of the Holy Office, nor for religious, for whom their own Congregation provides).

Regarding the discipline of the other sacraments, occasions for intervention are rarer, but even for these there are notable documents, such as the most recent decree *Spiritus Sancti munera* of 14 September 1946 (AAS, 38 [1946], pp. 349–58), by which, in a bold innovation, the faculty has been granted to all parish priests to administer the sacrament of Confirmation to infants and adults in danger of death when the diocesan bishop cannot conveniently do so.

As for the personnel of the Sacred Congregation, it is governed by a Cardinal Prefect; it also has a Secretary and, unlike all the others, two Undersecretaries, one of whom is chiefly concerned with administration and the other, attached to the office overseeing tribunals, with matters pertaining to marriage. The number of consultors and commissioners of this Congregation is particularly high.

V. S. C. DEL CONCILIO.

I. Origin and principal developments

It was instituted by Pius IV by the *motu proprio* *Alias nos*, 2 August 1564, for the purpose of implementing the decrees of the Council of Trent, which had happily concluded on 4 December 1563; hence the name Congregation of the Council. Its original foundation dates back to 30 December 1563, when Pius IV appointed a special commission of cardinals charged with ensuring the prompt and exact execution of the conciliar decrees; this commission was later confirmed and established as a true and permanent dicastery by the aforementioned *motu proprio* *Alias nos*. Shortly afterward, Pius IV granted the Congregation the faculty to interpret the disciplinary decrees of the Council of Trent; and St. Pius V confirmed and expanded this faculty, further granting it special powers for resolving causes and controversies concerning the interpretation and application of the conciliar decrees. All of this received full confirmation and approval from Gregory XIII. Sixtus V, by the constitution *Immensa*, 22 January 1588, confirmed the Congregation, more precisely defining its competence, granting it additional faculties, and designating it with the title: *Congregatio pro executione et interpretatione Concilii Tridentini*.

Intimately connected with the Congregation of the Council were four other Congregations, which may justly be called its appendages, namely: 1) the Sacred Congregation *super residentia Episcoporum*, instituted by Urban VIII (constitution *Episcoporum officium*, 8 February 1634), revived and endowed with special faculties by Benedict XIV (constitution *Ad universae*, 3 September 1746); 2) the Sacred Congregation for ecclesiastical jurisdiction and immunity, established as a true Congregation by Urban VIII in 1620, *vivae vocis oraculo*, which, after various vicissitudes, was provisionally united to the Sacred Congregation of the Council by Leo XIII; 3) the Sacred Congregation *super statu Ecclesiarum*, erected by Benedict XIV (constitution *Decet*, 23 November 1740); 4) the Sacred Congregation *super revisione synodorum provincialium*, created as a particular Congregation by Pius IX on 1–3 June 1849, *vivae vocis oraculo*.

With the constitution *Sapienti consilio*, 29 June 1908, by which Pius X reformed the Roman Curia, the Sacred Congregation of the Council was entirely transformed, retaining its name only as a historical remembrance. To it Pius X united the Sacred Congregation of Loreto, erected by Innocent XII (constitution *Sacrosancta Redemptionis*, 10 August 1698) for the custody and administration of the patrimony belonging to the Holy House and the Basilica, endowing it with very extensive faculties, including contentious and criminal jurisdiction. The *Codex Iuris Canonici* reproduces almost verbatim and fully confirms the reform of Pius X; however, it makes no mention of the Congregation of Loreto, which no longer exists today.

4. Constitution

From the outset it was composed of a fixed number of cardinals, appointed directly by the Pope. One of them directed the proper functioning of the dicastery, presided over meetings, and reported to the Supreme Pontiff; only later did he receive the title of Prefect.

The Congregation had a secretary and several officials for the dispatch of business. As the sphere of competence was enlarged and the number of cases increased, a very well-ordered organization came into being. Even before the reform of Pius X, special mention must be made of the auditor, the defender of the bond, the theologian, and the canonist, who were charged with giving their opinions in matrimonial cases and those concerning sacred ordination and religious profession.

According to the constitution *Sapienti consilio*, this Congregation consists of several cardinals appointed by the pope, one of whom, immediately designated by the pontiff, serves as prefect. The ordinary conduct of business is entrusted to the secretary, assisted by the undersecretary, who are the major officials. Then come the minor officials, namely the study assistants, the scribes, the registrar, the cashier, etc. There is also a college of consultors, appointed by the pope, who give their vote or opinion. The *CIC* has introduced no change regarding this matter.

3. **Competence.** — Necessarily, various periods must be distinguished. At first, as has been said, the Congregation was charged with ensuring the practical execution of the disciplinary decrees of the Council of Trent. Later, it was also charged with examining the decrees of provincial councils, the reports on the state of dioceses that bishops presented to the Holy See on the occasion of their *ad limina* visit, and with answering their various questions and queries, as well as with overseeing the discipline of the clergy and the Christian people. Since conciliar decrees touched upon almost the entire ecclesiastical discipline, it soon had to concern itself with the rights and duties of bishops, parish priests, canons, beneficiaries, ecclesiastical goods, the alms of Masses, matrimonial cases, and many others, granting appropriate dispensations, indults, and privileges. Thus, the power of this Congregation was interpretative, gracious, administrative, and judicial. Pius X radically modified this dicastery, and the *CIC* in its 25th title reproduces, in substance, the reform of Pius.

The competence pertains only to the Latin Church, excluding places dependent on the Congregation of Propaganda Fide. In general, it embraces everything relating to the discipline of the secular clergy and the Christian people. Specifically, it must ensure the exact observance of the precepts of Christian life; regulate matters pertaining to parish priests, canons, and other beneficiaries, confraternities and pious associations of any kind (even if dependent on religious or erected in their churches), pious legacies, pious causes, the stipends of Masses, ecclesiastical goods (except those belonging to seminaries and episcopal mensa), minor benefices and offices, diocesan tributes, taxes of episcopal curias, etc. It can dispense from various canonical laws; exempt from the conditions required for the provision of benefices when the conferral pertains to the Ordinary; admit to composition unjust detainers of ecclesiastical goods, even those belonging to religious; and permit the faithful to acquire ecclesiastical goods usurped by civil authority. Moreover, it is competent regarding ecclesiastical immunity and precedence, except for the rights of the Congregation of Religious and the Congregation of Ceremonial; regarding the celebration and recognition of councils and episcopal conferences; and regarding the handling of cases pertaining to its various matters of competence, but only in an administrative or disciplinary manner. Two special offices are attached to this Congregation: the catechetical and the administrative.

4. **Procedure.** — Before the reform of Pius X, the Congregation of the Council used to handle matters in two ways: *per summaria precum* and *in folio*. The expression *per summaria precum* means that the petition presented to the Congregation was summarized and set forth in a brief compendium. The expression *in folio* meant that the secretary drew up a detailed written report on the case or question proposed, to be examined and discussed by the cardinals. The first method was used for matters of lesser importance, the second for more significant and particularly grave matters. This distinction dates back to 1649, when the practice began of drawing up the official report, the “folio,” which was very brief and not printed. From 1679, this report began to be drawn up in a more extensive and careful manner and was printed. Moreover, the same *in folio* cases were handled and decided either *iuris ordine servato* or *ex officio*, that is, summarily, according to the greater or lesser importance and the will of the parties. The principal documents concerning the special procedure of this Congregation are: 1) the decree *Ut debita*, 9 Aug. 1693, of Innocent XII; 2) the edict *Non si debba*, 17 Sept. 1695, of the same Innocent XII; 3) the regulation of 6 Sept. 1831; 4) the instruction of the Congregation of the Council of 22 Aug. 1840 for matrimonial cases; 5) the instruction of the same Congregation of 17 Sept. 1847, republished with few and minor modifications in 1884.

According to the current discipline, the Congregation handles matters of lesser importance in the congress and those more significant and difficult in plenary session. The congress consists of the prefect, secretary, and undersecretary, and to it also attend the study assistants to report on the various matters entrusted to them. The plenary session consists of the cardinals, who have a deliberative vote, and they decide by an absolute majority of votes.

Important is the official publication, that is, made *ex officio* by the secretary, which is entitled *Thesaurus resolutionum S. Congr. Concilii*. It consists of 167 volumes, from 1718 to 1908, that is, until the publication of the official commentary of the Holy See, namely the *Acta Apostolicae Sedis*.

Felice Maria Cappello

VI. **S. C. OF RELIGIOUS.** — It is the central organ of the Holy See for the direction of religious throughout the world.

1. **History.** — On the basis of dicasteries already erected by earlier popes, Sixtus V, with the *motu proprio* *Romanus Pontifex* of 27 May 1586, created the Sacred Congregation for the Consultations of Regulars (A. Bizzarri, op. cit. in bibl., p. xxiv). With subsequent decrees (among which one of 13 June 1586) he further defined its constitution and competence, until on 22 Jan. 1587, with the bull *Immensa*, he completed the work by establishing, in the definitive organization of the Curia, also the Congregation for the Consultations of Regulars (§ *Nec sane minus*), and declared it competent regarding all questions concerning the religious state throughout the world (Bull. Taur., VIII [1944] p. 985).

The Congregation was, at the beginning, distinct from that known as the “Consultations of the Bishops,” but after various developments, in 1601 the two Congregations were, under Clement VIII, united under a single denomination, the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, which came to have vast competence and remained in existence until the reform of Pius X. To promote particular reforms in the increasingly numerous religious orders, the popes following Sixtus V created, within the Roman Curia, other bodies, which at times came to have the same competence as the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, leading to evident conflicts of jurisdiction and delays in resolving issues. Indeed, Innocent X, with the bull *Instaurandae* of 15 October 1623 (Bull. Taur., XV [1853] p. 696), established a new Congregation of cardinals, titled the “Sacred Congregation regarding the state of Regulars,” with the task of reforming all religious orders in Italy according to the decrees of Urban VIII, particularly through the suppression of small convents. The Congregation was confirmed by Clement IX with the bull *Innocenti* of 11 April 1668 (Bull. Taur., XVII [1855] p. 657), but Innocent XII, with the decree *Debitum Pastoralis* of 4 August 1698, suppressed the Congregation of Innocent X and created another, naming it the “Sacred Congregation for the Discipline of Regulars,” to which he entrusted all competence over the discipline of all religious orders, even outside Italy (Bull. Taur., XX [1857] p. 825). Pius IX, always with the intention of fostering the flourishing of existing religious orders, with the bull *Ubi primum arcam* of 17 June 1846, established the “Sacred Congregation above the state of Regular Orders” (Acta Pii IX, I, Rome 1854, p. 46). Although often the same prefect and secretary governed the various Congregations tasked with religious discipline, the multiplicity and indeterminacy of jurisdiction—even in relation to other Congregations—made a prompt reform necessary in this sector, especially because religious orders with simple vows had become extremely numerous in all dioceses, giving rise to new and broader problems regarding the organization of religious life in its internal and external relations. A first reorganization was carried out by Pius X with the *motu proprio* *Sacrae Congregationi* of 26 May 1906 (AAS, 39 [1906], pp. 203-204), by which the Congregations for the Discipline of Regulars and that above the state of Regular Orders were abolished, and all their competence was transferred to the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars. The definitive arrangement was then completed by the same Pope, along with that of the entire Roman Curia, with the constitution *Sapienti consilio* of 29 June 1908 (AAS, 1 [1901], p. 7), by which, separating the competence of the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, the part concerning bishops and dioceses was entrusted to the Sacred Congregations of the Consistory and of the Council, while the competence relating to religious orders was assigned to the new Sacred Congregation for Religious Affairs. The *Code of Canon Law* reproduces the reform of *Sapienti consilio*.

2. **Competence.** — It is established by canon 251 §1, according to which it “has the exclusive right to deal with the governance, discipline, studies, property, and privileges of religious of both sexes, whether they have solemn or simple vows, and of those who live in common in the manner of religious, even without public vows, and of secular Third Orders, excepting the rights of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide.” §3 of the same canon adds: “The granting of dispensations from common law for religious faithful is reserved to this Sacred Congregation, except as provided by canon 247 §5 regarding the dispensation from the eucharistic fast for celebrating priests, which pertains to the Holy Office.” In accordance with the canon, the following categories of persons are subject to the Congregation of Religious:

a) All religious of both sexes, that is, those faithful who emit public vows, whether simple or solemn, temporary or perpetual, of poverty, chastity, and obedience in a religious order (v. RELIGION). It should be noted immediately that religious are subject to the Sacred Congregation both as individuals and as a moral person, so that it also has competence over novices, postulants, and aspirants of a religious order, insofar as all these are part of the religious moral person. Persons external to the order to whom the order renders its services, for example, in hospitals, shelters, or boarding schools, do not form part of the moral person and are therefore not subject to the Congregation; however, when the places where religious exercise their ministry are private religious properties, it cannot be excluded that, for certain matters, such persons may indirectly benefit from concessions granted to religious.

b) Also subject to the Congregation are those faithful who, without having public vows, nevertheless live in common in the manner of religious under the authority of a superior, emitting a vow or promise of obedience, poverty, and chastity; these are the so-called societies living in common without vows, referred to in canon 673. The observations made above also apply to this category of persons.

c) Also subject to this Congregation are the secular Third Orders, that is, those associations of the faithful who, living in the world, strive for a holier life under the direction of a religious order, following a rule approved by the Church (canon 702). This is in contrast to other unions and confraternities of the faithful, which depend on the Sacred Congregation of the Council (canon 250 §2). It should be noted that Third Orders are subject as moral persons, since, as individuals, tertiaries remain simple faithful, subject to the various dicasteries of the Roman Curia.

d) With the constitution *Provida Mater Ecclesia* of Pius XII of 2 February 1947 (AAS, 29 [1947], p. 114, art. 9), institutes seculares—those societies of the faithful who profess the state of complete Christian perfection without emitting public vows and without the obligation of continuous common life in the manner of societies living in common—also come under the jurisdiction of the Congregation.

The scope of the Congregation’s competence over the aforementioned categories of persons is vast: it encompasses every possible matter that reflects any situation or interest of the same, whether as individuals or as societies (as clearly stated in the decree of the Pontifical Commission for the Interpretation of the Code of Canon Law, dated 24 March 1919, in AAS, 11 [1919], p. 251), except where expressly stated otherwise by law. In particular, the *Code of Canon Law* recalls the regulation of persons, that is, everything concerning the erection, constitution, approval, and suppression of religious orders themselves; moreover, everything concerning the election, governance, modification, and removal of superiors. The Congregation is also responsible for overseeing all matters regarding the internal and external discipline of religious orders or societies, including their way of life and issues concerning the observance or interpretation of vows, promises, and oaths. Within the competence of the Congregation also fall the organization of religious studies, the regulation, and supervision—according to the *Code of Canon Law*—of the administration of religious property. On 24 March 1919, the Pontifical Commission for the Interpretation of the *Code of Canon Law* established the exclusive competence of the Congregation over the reduction of burdens of pious causes, even when these have not been donated to religious orders but are currently erected or transferred to churches owned or indefinitely used by religious orders (AAS, 11 [1919], p. 251). The granting of privileges that religious may enjoy, and dispensations from common canonical norms or from constitutions approved by the Holy See, as well as the sanctioning of invalidities or irregularities committed, form an integral part of the Congregation’s competence (AAS, 11 [1919], p. 251; 15 [1923], p. 29).

However, its competence is limited by that of other Roman dicasteries which have exclusive jurisdiction over certain matters. The Holy Office has exclusive competence regarding matters of faith or morals, even in religious matters, such as the repression of certain specific offenses enumerated by the CIC, can. 2314, 904, 2368; even the dispensation from the Eucharistic fast for religious priests celebrating is solely within the competence of the Holy Office, can. 247. The Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide has ordinary jurisdiction over missionary religions in matters and questions pertaining to missions; in practice, however, it also has jurisdiction over some missionary religions in both religious and missionary aspects; and by special concession, it also has jurisdiction over religions of diocesan right in mission territories (can. 252). The Sacred Congregation of the Consistory acquires exclusive authority over religious who become bishops (can. 248). The Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments is the sole competent authority to examine processes concerning priestly ordinations, even of religious (AAS, 15 [1923], p. 29), if they are contested due to coercion or any other reason except for a defect of form, in which case the Holy Office is competent (can. 249); however, the Sacred Congregation of Religious first grants the dispensation from vows. The Sacred Congregation of the Council is typically consulted for the incorporation of parishes and religious houses, while all questions regarding the usurpation of religious property by civil authorities are within the exclusive competence of this Congregation (can. 250). The supervision of associations, unions, etc., of the faithful, even if erected in churches of religious, also falls under the Council. The Sacred Congregation of Studies and Seminaries has exclusive competence over the studies of seminaries, universities, or other university-type institutes, even if directed by religious, can. 256 (AAS, 24 [1932], p. 149). Finally, the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Church has exclusive competence regarding all matters of external forum pertaining to subjects of the Eastern rite, whether religious or not (can. 257). Within these limits, the competence of the Sacred Congregation has the characteristics of all other congregations, namely, it is universal, ordinary, vicarious, supreme, etc.

5. Procedure

Can. 251 § 3 establishes the procedure of the Sacred Congregation, which must be exclusively administrative, without the use of judicial formalities. Indeed, the canon clearly states that the Sacred Congregation must remit those cases requiring judicial order to the Roman tribunals, and furthermore, if the matter involves a dispute between a religious institute and a non-religious person, the Sacred Congregation may refer it to another Congregation or tribunal, especially at the request of a party, though it is not obliged to do so. It is indeed a common opinion today that the Sacred Congregations can decide administratively on matters ordinarily subject to judicial order. Access to the Sacred Congregation is possible directly by any religious or the representatives of the individual moral persons subject to it, without the need for intermediaries; however, for male religious institutes of pontifical right, the Sacred Congregation typically communicates through their respective procurator general in Rome, according to the provision of can. 517.

There is no proper appeal against the decisions of the Sacred Congregation, but rather a recourse to a new hearing (*audientia*) or a petition for a plenary session if a decision was made solely in a congress.

6. Constitution

Its constitution is not dissimilar to that of the other Roman Congregations, though it has its own peculiarities. The physical persons composing this dicastery are: the cardinal prefect, who represents the supreme authority within the Congregation; next is the secretary, who directly manages the entire dicastery along with the undersecretary; each section is headed by a study assistant; and finally, there are the minor officials, such as the registrar, the archivist, the treasurer, and their respective collaborators.

In recent times, following the model of those in the Secretariat of State, attachés have been introduced, i.e., non-tenured officials who assist especially in the various sections of the Sacred Congregation. Alongside it exists a body of consultors, appointed by the Supreme Pontiff with a special brief, whose vote is required for important particular questions. The cardinal prefect, together with the cardinals of the Sacred Congregation and the secretary, form the plenary Congregation, which deliberates on major issues, such as the issuance of instructions, the resolution of legal doubts or practical interpretations of laws; or it expresses its own opinion on matters requiring the authority of the Supreme Pontiff, such as the approval of new religious institutes or their constitutions, etc. The cardinal prefect, the secretary, the undersecretary, the study assistants, and two or more counselors, together with a secretary of the congresses, form the full Congress, which is responsible for preparing matters for the plenary session and resolving issues of a certain importance that, however, do not require the plenary session at the discretion of the secretary. The prefect, the secretary, the undersecretary, and the study assistants form the ordinary Congress, which is responsible for granting faculties, indults, graces, provisions, etc., that must be issued within the week. The most important matters are brought by the cardinal prefect to the Pope for approval during the official audience. Decrees or decisions are signed directly by the cardinal, and in his absence, by the secretary; if the secretary is also absent, by the undersecretary; generally, the provisions are countersigned by one of the study assistants of the respective sections. According to the latest internal regulations of the Sacred Congregation, there are three sections:

I. The aforementioned "Ordinary Affairs" section deals with the governance of religious through the issuance of acts and provisions necessary for the regular conduct of religious life. It comprises three offices: for Male Religious, for Female Religious, and for Societies without Vows and Secular Institutes.

II. The "Special Affairs" section comprises a single office, which handles extraordinary cases both from legal and practical aspects of religious life.

III. The simply "General" section has a more directly bureaucratic and documentary role concerning all matters handled within the Sacred Congregation. It comprises four offices: the Protocol, the Archive and Library, Statistics, and Legal Recognition of Religious Institutes.

The consultors of the Sacred Congregation of Religious do not form a proper college; however, special commissions have been established among them, with the addition of officials of the Sacred Congregation, as follows: the legal commission, for the study of strictly legal questions; the commission for the constitutions of new religious institutes, for the revision of constitutions to be approved; the commission for the constitutions of secular institutes, for the approval of this new form of religious life; and the commission for religious governance and discipline, for examining the disciplinary state and suggesting means for the ever greater flourishing of religious life. This commission is subdivided into subsections: for resignations, disciplinary causes and appeals, and quinquennial reports; for visitations; and for the studies of religious.

As in other Congregations, there is also a group of lay lawyers who serve as legal consultants for matters of a civil nature.

CONGREGATIONS - Façade of the Palazzo di Propaganda Fide, architect G. L. Bernini (1627) - Rome.

VII. S. C. OF PROPAGANDA FIDE. —

I. History

Certain facts regarding the origins are noted here, omitting controversial points. The first embryo of a central dicastery to be established in Rome, intended to counterbalance the ever-growing influence of the Spanish Council of the Indies and to eliminate the abuses arising from it, dates back to St Pius V. In April 1568, through the nuncio Giambattista Castagna, he informed Philip II of his intention to send to the East Indies “a person who would depend directly on the Holy See and have the authority of a nuncio”; upon the king’s refusal, Pius V, on 23 July 1568, commissioned several cardinals of various nationalities residing in the Curia to form a commission to bring back to the faith the heretics of Northern Europe. He ordered other cardinals to constitute a second commission to oversee matters relating to the spread of the Christian religion in the East and West Indies, adopting appropriate measures. In the Pope’s mind, the two commissions were to be two branches of a single general, ordinary, and permanent cardinal congregation.

It appears that the first commission never met; the second, under the presidency of Cardinal Amulio, began its sessions immediately, but in the face of Madrid’s hardening stance, it ceased at the beginning of 1569.

The commission envisaged by Pius V did not revive under Gregory XIII (1572–85), as some claim. Gregory XIII, at the urging of Cardinal Antonio Santori, in the Consistory of 10 June 1593, established only the Congregation of the Greeks (pro reformatione Graecorum in Italia existentium et monachorum S. Basilii); this had a difficult existence and was not included in the reform of the Curia ordered by Sixtus V in 1588; it resurfaced in 1593 as a simple commission concerning certain Greek rites and operated from 1593 to 1595. The congregation of Pius V was not revived even under the first successors of Sixtus V.
Under Clement VIII (1592–1605), Santori strove in every way to revive the Pius V congregation, making extensive use of the contribution of the Carmelite Fr Girolamo Graziano. And, in the audience of 6 May 1599, he obtained the august approval to re-establish the congregation, which was named: Congregatio super negotiis Sanctae Fidei et religionis catholicae. Its members, under the prefecture of Santori, were Cardinals Federico Borromeo, Alessandro de’ Medici, Cesare Baronio, Alfonso Visconti, Silvio Antoniano, Roberto Bellarmino, Pietro Aldobrandini, and Cinzio Passeri-Aldobrandini. The first meeting *coram Sanctitate Sua* took place from 10 to 19 May 1599, the last on 3 July 1600. The last mention of the congregation appears in a document dated 29 March 1601. In its meetings or congregations, all matters concerning missions in Europe and overseas countries were discussed, with the aim of freeing apostolic work from the obstacles placed by governments. But once again, Spanish intransigence prevailed over Rome’s grand reforming ideas.

In 1604, Clement VIII replaced the congregation, which had been defunct for four years, with a general secretary for the missions, entrusting its direction to the Venerable Pietro della Madre di Dio. This office continued under Leo XI and Paul V.
Finally, through the intervention of eminent men, as the times had matured, and building on the initiative of St Pius V, under the pressure of events and with regard to the tumultuous situation of Christianity in Europe and in the overseas countries of the East and West, Gregory XV (1621–23), with the constitution *Inscrutabili* of 22 June 1622, definitively established the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide, clearly defining its purposes, which have essentially been pursued successfully to this day. The congregation had already been founded on 6 January of the same year and comprised 15 members: 13 cardinals and two prelates, plus a secretary.

Then, in 1626, the long-debated project of establishing a printing press was realized by setting up a polyglot press at the congregation, which was later incorporated into the Vatican Press.

For the history of the Sacred Congregation and its Archive, see MISSIONS: Central and Peripheral Organization; FACULTIES; VATICAN, PRINTING HOUSE.

7. Present Competence

The competence and internal organization of the Congregation of Propaganda were profoundly modified by the apostolic constitution *Sapienti consilio* of Pius X, dated 29 June 1908, and by the internal regulations drawn up according to the *Ordo servandus in S. Congregationibus* (29 September 1908) on 24 October 1908. Further clarifications regarding the territorial sphere of Propaganda are contained in the motu proprio *Sancta Dei Ecclesia* of Pius XI, dated 24 June 1938.

The competence of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide, within its dependent territories, extends to all matters that, in other territories, fall under the competence of the other congregations (CIC, can. 252), except for what pertains to the Holy Office, the Sacred Congregation of Rites, and that for the Eastern Church, as well as excluding matters concerning matrimonial cases.

All Ordinaries of mission territories, and within its territories the clergy and people, are dependent on it; it exercises its powers also over seminaries for the missions, schools, pious works, and the administration of goods destined for the missions, even if such institutes are located outside the aforementioned territories; and it also governs religious as missionaries, as well as certain Congregations and Societies exclusively devoted to missionary work.

The missions are divided into: Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Oceania.

Ugo Bertini

VIII. S. C. OF RITES. —

I. Origin

It was established by Sixtus V with the bull *Immensa aeterni Dei* of 22 January 1588.

8. Competence

In the apostolic constitution *Sapienti consilio* of Sixtus V, the competence of the Sacred Congregation of Rites extended to two distinct fields: liturgy and the canonization of saints. Regarding liturgy, the Congregation was to: a) ensure the observance and purity of sacred rites and ceremonies concerning the Eucharistic Sacrifice, the Divine Office, the administration of the Sacraments, and every other liturgical action; b) emend the respective liturgical books; c) examine and approve, after reporting to the Pope, the offices of saintly patrons (in practice, it examined and approved all liturgical texts). In connection with this liturgical competence, the Congregation: d) was responsible for ceremonial concerning the reception of sovereigns, ambassadors, and other high dignitaries; e) finally, it was the final arbiter in disputes regarding precedence. As for the canonization of saints, it was fully entrusted with the handling of these causes. In relation to the double competence outlined above, although the apostolic constitution of Sixtus V does not mention it, the Sacred Congregation also dealt with matters concerning relics.

This competence, while remaining substantially unchanged, underwent the following modifications over time.

Regarding the liturgical field: a) the competence that initially extended to the entire Church was restricted to the Latin Church, while for the Eastern Church, it first became the responsibility of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide, and later of the Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Church, established in 1862 within Propaganda and made autonomous in 1917; b) the care of ceremonial for the reception of sovereigns and dignitaries passed to the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial; c) matters relating to relics, from 1669 (Clement IX, constitution *In ipsis*, 6 July 1669) were assigned to the competence of the Sacred Congregation of Indulgences and Sacred Relics; and under Pius X, it returned to the Congregation of Rites (motu proprio *Quae in Ecclesiae bonum*, 28 January 1904: *Acta Pii X*, I, Rome 1905, pp. 141-44); d) matters concerning precedence, with the reform of Pius X (1908), became the competence of the Sacred Congregations of the Council and of Religious, respectively; e) finally, regarding the administration of the Sacraments, with the establishment in 1908 of the Sacred Congregation of the Discipline of the Sacraments, the competence of the Congregation of Rites was limited in this regard to sacred rites and ceremonies alone, while it retained exclusive and absolute competence for the entire Church regarding the causes of beatification and canonization and sacred relics (can. 253).

9. Ancient functioning

Sixtus V appointed five cardinals to the Congregation, a number that was later greatly increased. One of the cardinals served as president, later called prefect, and was assisted from the beginning by a secretary. Each cause was presented for discussion by a cardinal called the *ponente* or reporter, whose appointment, initially made by the Congregation itself, was later reserved to the Pope (1665). In the discussion of causes of beatification and canonization, the Promoter General of the Faith always intervened, with a function analogous to that of the public prosecutor in criminal cases; initially appointed case by case, this office became permanent under Urban VIII (11 January 1631). From this point onward, the Promoter had the faculty to choose an assistant, initially called his substitute, then sub-promoter of the faith, and from about the middle of the last century also assessor of the Congregation. In addition to the Promoter of the Faith, the Congregation had its own notary from 1625, who for a long time also served as archivist of the dicastery. There was also, from the beginning, a protonotary, a remnant of the procedure prior to the institution of the Congregation, when a member of the College of Apostolic Protonotaries served as secretary in the discussion of these causes. Finally, the secretary also had an assistant who later became the substitute of the Congregation.

10. Current organization

Currently, the Congregation consists of about twenty cardinals under the leadership of a cardinal prefect. The secretariat is composed of the secretary, assisted by the substitute and other minor officials, among whom is the *innografo*, tasked with the metrical and stylistic revision of liturgical texts. There is also a chancery headed by the notary and chancellor. The study of matters within the dicastery's competence is conducted through three sections: the first for the causes of saints, the second for liturgical matters, and the third for both sectors. The section of a theological-legal nature is governed by the Promoter General of the Faith, assisted by the sub-promoter and a certain number of study assistants and writers. Numerous consultors report to it, of whom ten are *consultori nati* by virtue of their office as prelates: the secretary of the Congregation, the dean and the two senior auditors of the Rota (a remnant of the ancient procedure when canonization causes were entrusted to the Rota), the sacristan of His Holiness, the Apostolic Protonotary, the Master of the Apostolic Palace, the Promoter and Sub-Promoter General of the Faith, and the general reporter of the Historical Section. The other consultors are ordinarily drawn from the ranks of the regular clergy: there are always a Dominican, a Franciscan, a Jesuit, a Conventual, a Barnabite, an Augustinian, a Minim, and a Servite. The second section consists solely of consultors, among whom the Masters of Pontifical Ceremonies are *consultori nati*. From among these consultors, a liturgical commission is formed, to which matters of some importance are submitted for an advisory vote. The third section, called the Historical Section, was created by Pius XI with a motu proprio of 6 February 1930, for the study of the historical causes of the Servants of God and for the emendation of liturgical books. It is governed by a general reporter assisted by a vice-reporter and a number of study assistants. A group of consultors report to it, chosen from among the most renowned representatives of historical sciences, ecclesiastical or lay.

After the preparatory study conducted by the various sections, minor matters are concluded in the congress, attended by the secretary, the protonotary, the Promoter General of the Faith, the sub-promoter, the general reporter of the Historical Section, and the substitute, under the presidency of the cardinal prefect. For more important matters, a printed report (*positio*) is prepared, which, entrusted to a cardinal *ponente* or reporter, is proposed for discussion by the cardinals in the so-called ordinary or particular congregation. Of special importance are the discussions on the heroicity of virtues, or on martyrdom or miracles in causes of beatification (v.) and canonization (v.); these discussions begin in a preparatory congregation before the cardinal *ponente*, proceed in preparatory congregations before all the cardinals, and conclude in a general congregation before the Supreme Pontiff, with the participation of all cardinals and consultors.

Attached to the Congregation is a roster of advocates and procurators. Since 1949, there has also been a college of physicians for the scientific study of proposed miracles, a task previously carried out by physicians appointed case by case as experts. Finally, it should be noted that every cause of beatification and canonization has a postulator, appointed by the petitioners with the *nihil obstat* of the Congregation.

### 5. Archive.

The archive of the Congregation is housed partly in the Vatican Archive and partly in the Congregation’s own premises. At the Vatican, there is the collection of the processes of beatification and canonization of causes that have been concluded or otherwise archived. In the Congregation’s premises, the archive is divided into three sections:

a) the main archive, containing the complete series of registers of the Servants of God and liturgical records from 1588 to the present; a collection of calendars and those of dioceses and religious orders; a collection of ordinary proceedings known as *posizioni* from 1851 onward; printed *posizioni* for the causes of the Servants of God from 1814 onward;

b) the historical archive, located in the Historical Section, containing the ordinary proceedings from 1588 to 1850, which are in the process of being cataloged, and a miscellaneous hagiographical collection concerning causes of canonization that have been concluded or suspended;

c) the chancery archive, containing transcripts, i.e., official copies of the ordinary and apostolic processes of causes of beatification and canonization currently underway, as well as other chancery documents, both ancient and modern.

The archive is not open to the public. To consult either the Vatican collection or the various collections held by the Congregation, permission must be obtained each time from the Secretary.

It should finally be noted that, like the archives of the other dicasteries, the archive of the Rites was also transported to Paris in 1810 by order of Napoleon; when it was later returned to Rome, a collection of printed materials relating to causes of canonization remained in Paris, today preserved in the *Bibliothèque Nationale*, for which a summary list is provided in *Analecta Bollandiana*, 5 (1886), pp. 148-58.

**

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IX. SACRED CONGREGATION OF CEREMONIAL

### I. Origins

Various theories have been advanced regarding the origins of this Sacred Congregation. It is now commonly accepted (see also *Annuario pontificio*, 1949, p. 770) that it originated from the constitution *Immensa* of Sixtus V dated 22 January 1588 (cf. also F. M. Cappello, *De Curia Romana. Sede plena*, Rome 1911, pp. 342 ff.); previously, its origins were traced back to Gregory XIII (J.-J. F. Haine, *De la Cour romaine*, Louvain 1859, no. 57; B. Ojetti, *De Curia Romana*, Rome 1910, p. 144), so that Sixtus V, by establishing with his constitution *Immensa* the “Congregatio pro sacris Ritibus et Caeremonias,” would have attributed to this new Congregation a cumulative jurisdiction with that already conferred by his predecessor upon the Ceremonial.

Thus, Sixtus V was the first to entrust the Sacred Congregation for Rites and Ceremonies with the task of regulating the rites in the papal chapel, of ordering everything deemed necessary for the honorable treatment not only of sovereigns, princes, and their diplomatic representatives, but also of other civil and ecclesiastical dignitaries arriving in Rome, and of summarily defining and settling disputes and difficulties regarding precedence in the Curia (see *Bull. Rom.*, VIII [Turin 1863], pp. 989-90).

Soon, however, Sixtus V himself deemed it expedient to separate the regulation of sacred rites, which was the proper domain of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, from matters pertaining to papal ceremonial, to be observed upon the arrival and stay in Rome of sovereigns, their ambassadors, and civil and ecclesiastical dignitaries. Consequently, he shortly thereafter established a separate Congregation, which, as has been said, took the name Ceremonial due to the subject matter it was to handle. The papal document establishing the Congregation as a distinct entity has not been found despite extensive research; however, the oldest documents preserved in the Congregation’s archive confirm its Sistine institution.

### 2. Competence

The Congregation’s competence is threefold:

a) liturgical and religious competence, as it regulates all strictly papal ceremonies and extends its authority to govern functions celebrated by cardinals;

b) secular competence relating to so-called court ceremonial, which is exercised in determining the precedence among cardinals, the prelatures of the Roman Curia, and diplomatic agents accredited to the Holy See, as well as their honorable reception by the Roman Pontiff;

c) contentious competence, as it resolves any disputes that may arise among the aforementioned persons regarding precedence.

In matters within its competence, the Congregation proceeds as follows: minor or previously settled issues are resolved by its secretariat, while more significant or unresolved matters are submitted for examination by the full Congregation (comprising cardinals, secretariat officials, and consultors) and presented to the Supreme Pontiff for decision.

### 3. Constitution

The Congregation is governed by the Cardinal Dean of the Sacred College, who serves as its Prefect. By virtue of his seniority, he is considered one of the cardinals most experienced in ceremonial matters, particularly those concerning the Apostolic See and the papal court.

Other cardinals also belong to the Congregation.

The secretariat consists of a Secretary (who is often, though not always, one of the Masters of Papal Ceremonies), an Undersecretary, and a writer. The Congregation also has a small number of consultors, in addition to the Masters of Papal Ceremonies, who serve as consultors *ex officio*.

The Congregation possesses an archive containing interesting ancient and modern documents relating to papal and cardinalitial ceremonial.

On the occasion of sending a papal legate and a Noble Guard of the Pontifical Household to present the zucchetto and the cardinal’s biretta to a newly elected cardinal who, at the time of his promotion, is outside Rome, the Congregation of Ceremonial provides instructions on the ceremonial for the imposition of the zucchetto and biretta, both to the papal envoys and to the new cardinal through them.

As Moroni writes in his *Dizionario*, it is the duty of the Secretary of the Congregation to draft the circular letter to the cardinals informing them whether the newly elected Pope recognizes his relatives and, if so, what treatment is due to them.

The constitution and competence of the Congregation have undergone very few changes. The same constitution *Sapienti consilio* of Pius X dated 29 June 1908 (*Acta Pii X*, IV, Rome 1914, p. 155), dealing with this Sacred Congregation, immediately states that it “preserves intact the rights hitherto attributed to it,” and the *Ordo servandus in Curia Romana*, annexed to the cited constitution, declares: “By its nature and constitution, this Congregation remains unaltered in its organization and manner of proceeding.” Thus, canon 254 of the *Codex Iuris Canonici* confirms the competence that this Sacred Congregation has had since its origins, stipulating: “It belongs to the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial to regulate the ceremonies celebrated in the papal chapel and hall, as well as the sacred functions celebrated by cardinals outside the papal chapel; furthermore, the same Congregation is competent to adjudicate disputes regarding precedence among cardinals and among legates sent by various nations to the Holy See.”

**

X. S. C. FOR EXTRAORDINARY ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. — I. *Historical Notes.* — In 1793, Pius VI (1775–99), following the example of his predecessors, to address the most serious religious problems arising in France after the Revolution of 1791, established a special Congregation “super negotii ecclesiasticis Regni Galliarum”; this was confirmed by Pius VII (1800–23) and endowed with broader competence under the name of *Congregatio a negotii ecclesiasticis extraordinariis*, continuing until 1809, when the Pope was taken prisoner to France.

Upon his return from France, Pius VII, perceiving the exceptional difficulties in which the Church had long found itself, by a note of Card. Bartolomeo Pacca, pro-Secretary of State, to Fr. Francesco Fontana, prepositus general of the Barnabites, dated 19 July 1814, established a true and proper “Congregatio extraordinaria praeposita negotii ecclesiasticis orbis catholici,” which in 1827 assumed, together with its current designation, the general character of the other Sacred Congregations.

Pius XI, in a letter addressed to Card. Pietro Gasparri on 5 July 1925, decreed that the S. C. for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs should have as its prefect the Cardinal Secretary of State. Previously, in fact, it had no prefect in the proper sense of the term; the office was held in meetings by the senior cardinal present, while the Secretary of State was the natural executor of the decisions taken therein. Moreover, this Sacred Congregation, originally composed of eight cardinals, a secretary with a vote, and five consultors, now includes, alongside the secretary, an undersecretary, while the number of cardinals is no longer fixed, nor is that of the consultors. Among the cardinals, however, there must be included ex officio, by virtue of the aforementioned letter of Pius XI, the secretaries of the Holy Office and of the S. C. Consistorial, the Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, and the Datary. There are also minor officials—copyists, attendants, and an archivist—who belong juridically to the Secretariat of State, of which the Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs form the First Section.

2. *Competence.* — Before the reform of Pius X on 29 June 1908, this Sacred Congregation, in addition to individual matters entrusted to it by express will of the Holy Father, also handled questions of ordinary administration concerning certain ecclesiastical provinces. In all these matters, as in particular cases, this Congregation, unlike the other dicasteries, limited itself to expressing a merely consultative vote, the definitive resolution of which was reserved to the sovereign pontiff.

In the reform of the Roman Curia, the S. C. for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs was entrusted with the task of concluding procedures to be submitted to the S. C. Consistorial concerning the erection and division of dioceses, as well as the appointment of their respective ordinaries in all territories not subject to the S. C. of Propaganda Fide, with the exception of Italy; moreover, it was to deal with all those questions that were referred to its examination by the Supreme Pontiff through the Cardinal Secretary of State, chiefly those relating to civil powers and to concordats or conventions stipulated with various states.

The *Code of Canon Law*, in can. 255, confirmed these provisions but reserved to the exclusive competence of the S. C. for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs the procedures for the erection and division of dioceses and the appointment of their ordinaries, without territorial exception, whenever these matters had to be negotiated with civil governments. Indeed, with regard to the appointment of bishops, this also applies, according to the aforementioned letter of Pius XI, even in cases where governments are consulted regarding possible political difficulties concerning the persons chosen. It should be noted, however, that for Italy, regarding the appointment of bishops, special norms have been introduced after the promulgation of the *Code of Canon Law*.

In this Sacred Dicastery, the procedure for handling matters is analogous to that of the other Congregations. The cardinals who are members are convened by the Secretary of State in plenary session whenever occasion arises. The secretary also attends the session, drawing up the minutes, which are then submitted to the Holy Father for the definitive resolution of the matters.

S. C. OF SEMINARIES AND UNIVERSITIES OF STUDIES. —

I. Origins

Its earliest origins can be traced to Leo X, who, wishing to restore new splendor to the Roman University established by Boniface VIII (*Studium Urbis Generale*), instituted by the apostolic constitution *Dum suavissimos* of 5 Nov. 1513 a permanent commission of three cardinals charged with its oversight (*Bull. Rom.*, V [Turin 1860], pp. 568–70).

Julius III, with the bulls *Dum attentae* (23 Jan. 1552) and *Pastoralis officii* (27 Mar. 1552), expanded this commission (F. M. Ke-nazzi, *Storia dell’Univ. degli studi di Roma*, II, Rome 1804, pp. 253–57). Sixtus V then, with the well-known bull *Immenae aeterni Dei* of 22 Jan. 1588, raised the commission to a higher and more universal task, enrolling it among the true Congregations (*Congregatio pro Universitate studii Romani*) and entrusting it with the care of all universities throughout the Catholic world, including the most famous ones such as Paris, Bologna, Salamanca, and even Oxford, which had fallen into Protestant hands (cf. *Bull. Rom.*, VIII [Turin 1863], p. 992 sq.).

This new dicastery, which would later be called the S. C. of Studies, saw its activity progressively diminish due to the decline of universities, undermined by political contingencies and error, and because of the ascendancy of the College of Consistorial Advocates, to which Sixtus V himself entrusted the rectorship of the Roman University (bull *Sacri apostolatus*, 23 Aug. 1587; *Bull. Rom.*, VIII [Turin 1863], pp. 897–900), until it faded away during the pontificate of Clement X (1670–76), when Card. De Luca, in his *Relatio Romanae Curiae Forensis* (Disc. 27, n. 1), refers to the *Congregatio Studiorum vel Sapientiae* as already extinct.

With Pius VII a second period began for the Congregation. After the restoration of the Papal States in 1814, the Pope appointed a cardinalatial commission for the reorganization of studies in his territory. This intention was carried out by his successor Leo XII through the constitution *Quod divina sapientia* (28 Aug. 1824), by which the Congregatio Studiorum was also established, though limited to “all public and private schools of the Papal States,” of whatever type and level (*Bull. Rom. Cont.*, XVI [Rome 1854], p. 86 sq.).

On 20 Sept. 1870 this Congregation ceased to exist as a civil institution, being replaced by the Ministry of Public Education of the Italian government, to which its important archives passed; ecclesiastically, however, it survived, with the broader and original task entrusted to it by Sixtus V, and concerned itself with the rise of new Catholic universities throughout the world and with all matters relating to the conferral of academic degrees. This task was confirmed by the constitution *Sapienti consilio* (29 June 1908) of Pius X (*AAS*, I [1909], pp. 7–19).

The competence of the S. C. of Studies had always excluded seminaries, which, initially subject entirely to the jurisdiction of bishops, later became the object of special care on the part of the Holy See through the S. C. of the Council or even the S. C. of Bishops and Regulars, and from 1906 solely through the latter. The *Sapienti consilio* reserved such jurisdiction to the S. C. Consistorial, where a special office was established.

Concerned by the ever-increasing number of matters and the importance of its office, Benedict XV, with the motu proprio *Seminaria clericorum* of 4 Nov. 1915, merged the Office for Seminaries established at the Sacred Congregation of the Consistory and the Sacred Congregation of Studies, creating a new dicastery which took the name of the Sacred Congregation for Seminaries and Universities (AAS, 7 [1915], pp. 493-95), and this was incorporated into the CIC (can. 256).

2. **Competence.** — The prescriptions of Benedict XV’s motu proprio, by which the new dicastery was to “form the minds and hearts of clerics” and assume in full the “duties of the Congregation of Studies,” were confirmed and clarified by the CIC (can. 256, to which canons 1376 and 1377 are related). However, excluded from its competence are the seminaries dependent on the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (can. 252) and the Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Church (can. 257), as well as the institutes of formation for religious (can. 251).

The constitution *Deus scientiarum Dominus* (24 May 1931), with which Pius XI reorganized higher ecclesiastical studies, reserved to the Sacred Congregation for Seminaries and Universities the canonical erection and supreme governance of all universities and faculties of ecclesiastical studies without exception, “even in places and institutes subject to the Sacred Congregations for the Eastern Church and for the Propagation of the Faith, and also faculties which belong to any religious families” (art. 4: AAS 23 [1931], p. 248).

That the same Sacred Congregation also holds competence over schools and institutes of Catholic education dependent on ecclesiastical authority was declared by the Secretariat of State, for Italy in letters of 14 Apr. 1932 and 23 Aug. 1934, addressed to Cardinal Prefect G. Bisleti, and for Latin America in a letter of 12 June 1949, addressed to Cardinal Prefect G. Pizzardo. It may therefore be said today, in fact, to be the dicastery “of Catholic instruction and education” of the Church.

With the motu proprio *Cum nobis* of 4 Nov. 1941, Pius XII established within the Sacred Congregation for Seminaries the Pontifical Work for Priestly Vocations to safeguard, encourage, and assist vocations to the priesthood, “uniting the faithful of the whole world in a communion of prayer and pious practices,” “with the faculty of aggregating works and enrolling persons,” granting them indulgences and spiritual favors (AAS, 33 [1941], p. 279). The Statutes and Norms for its application date from 8 Sept. 1943 (AAS, 35 [1943], pp. 369-73).

3. **Constitution.** — At the head of the dicastery is a cardinal prefect, assisted by a secretary, an undersecretary, and study assistants. For the seminaries of Italy there is an “ordinary” apostolic visitor (cf. AAS, 23 [1931], p. 151), while for seminaries in other nations the apostolic visitor is generally appointed for each individual case or for a fixed period (ad triennium or ad quinquennium).

All seminaries are required to submit a triennial report (cf. AAS, 17 [1924], pp. 547-51), while the colleges of Rome, the universities and faculties of ecclesiastical studies, and the Catholic schools in Italy must submit annual reports. The pontifical regional seminaries of Italy depend directly on the Sacred Congregation even in administrative matters (cf. AAS, 6 [1914], pp. 213-18).

For its own and others’ benefit, the Congregation has published various works. Among the principal ones are: *Enchiridion clericorum*, a collection of official documents for the education of the clergy from the origins of the Church to 1938 (a second volume on universities is in preparation); *Pii PP. XI constituto apostolica de universitatibus et facultatibus studiorum ecclesiasticorum* with annexed Ordinations of the Sacred Congregation and an alphabetical index (1931); *Elenchus seminarium*, arranged by nation and region, with historical introductions, photographic illustrations, statistical tables, and indices of all seminaries dependent on the Sacred Congregation (1934); *Regolamento per gli alumni dei pontifici seminari regionali d’Italia* (1940); *Elenco degli istituti dell’ordine medio e superiore dipendenti dall’autorità ecclesiastica in Italia*, with indices and diagrams (1942); *Norme per i pontifici seminari regionali d’Italia* (1943). The Work for Priestly Vocations provides for the printing of promotional booklets in various languages and, since 1945, a *Foglio di comunicazioni* to facilitate relations between the pontifical center and diocesan works. The Sacred Congregation promotes study conferences for educators of seminaries and institutes dependent on ecclesiastical authority and publishes the proceedings.

XII. **SACRED CONGREGATION OF THE FABRIC OF ST PETER** — I. **Origins.** — The first traces of this dicastery are found during the pontificate of Julius II, when he, beginning the reconstruction of St Peter’s Basilica, entrusted, with the constitution *Liquet Omnibus* of 11 Jan. 1510 (Bull. Rom., V [Torino 1860], pp. 481-88), the oversight of the works to a certain number of persons.

Later, Clement VII, with the constitution *Admonet Nos suscepti* of 12 Dec. 1523 (Bull. Rom., VI [Torino 1861], pp. 48-54), appointed a permanent commission of sixty experts, chosen from all parts of the world, charged with administering the revenues of the Fabric. This commission, which “was chiefly to ensure— as Pastor says—that funds accruing were not diverted to other purposes,” was removed from the jurisdiction of any magistracy and placed directly under the Holy See, with the faculty of having its own judge to handle all cases concerning II.
In time, however, Sixtus V, by the constitution *Cum ex debito* of 4 Mar. 1589 (Bull. Rom., IX [Torino 1864], pp. 184-87), deprived it of much of this independence by subjecting it to the jurisdiction of the cardinal archpriest of the Basilica. Having proved unsatisfactory, the commission was soon dissolved by Clement VIII and replaced by a special dicastery, which took the name of the Sacred Congregation of the Reverenda Fabbrica of St Peter.

To it were transferred all the functions previously exercised by the suppressed commission, and at the same time specific duties were assigned to it: the collection of offerings for the Fabric, the handling of civil, criminal, and mixed cases concerning the Fabric or its personnel, and the execution of acts regarding the granting of favors, privileges, and indults. Among other faculties, this Congregation could grant both personal and real privileges, could claim uncertain legacies and those destined for persons under legal incapacity, and could, finally, divert to the benefit of the Fabric the revenues of certain properties during vacancy or in case of dispute. In matters of contentious jurisdiction, it heard in first instance every civil and criminal case concerning the Fabric and its personnel; in appellate jurisdiction, it heard cases referred to it by any other tribunal, provided they were not exempted by a strictly papal act.

The Congregation was composed of a number of cardinals (in addition to the prefect, who was the cardinal archpriest of the Basilica pro tempore, according to a custom begun under Sixtus V), the auditor of the Apostolic Chamber, the general treasurer, the dean of the Roman Rota, a cleric of the Chamber, the economo of the Fabric who also served as secretary of the Congregation, a canon of St Peter’s acting as judge, the advocate and fiscal procurator, and the general chancellor.

In order to better fulfill its mandate regarding pious bequests, this dicastery could appoint, within the provinces of the Papal States, its own delegates as commissioners of the Reverenda Fabbrica, who held office for one year; they exercised their own jurisdiction and were competent to judge in first instance cases of any value, against whose sentences, however, an appeal could be made to the Congregation.

Benedict XIV, by virtue of the constitution *Quanta curarum* of 15 November 1751 (Bened. XIV Bull., III, I [Opera omnia, XVII, I, Prato 1804], pp. 326-29), divided this Congregation into two sections, assigning to each well-defined functions, so that a General Congregation was created, competent to handle contentious cases, and a Particular Congregation, composed of the Prefect, three other cardinals, the Economus-Secretary, and the Ordinary Judge, to whom was entrusted the administration of the Fabbrica. The latter, however, soon disappeared; indeed, in 1760, under Clement XIII, a single body was restored.

2. **Competence.** — The attributions of this dicastery, which remained unchanged even after the reforms of Pius VII in 1816, Leo XII in 1824, and Gregory XVI in 1834, underwent a significant limitation under the pontificate of Pius IX, when the Pope withdrew from it, by an edict of 28 November 1863, all powers in contentious matters, which were transferred to the Congregation of the Council.

The Congregation suffered further and more serious limitations with the reform of Pius X in 1908, being reduced to dealing solely with the administration of the Fabbrica. In the constitution *Sapienti consilio*, indeed, it is stated: «The Congregation, which is called the Reverenda Fabbrica of St. Peter, shall henceforth have as its sole concern the administration of the property of the Basilica of the Prince of the Apostles, observing meticulously in this regard the norms established by Benedict XIV in the constitution *Quanta curarum*, issued on 15 November 1751.»

340 CONGREGAZIONI ROMANE 341

3. **Constitution.** — At the present time, the Congregation of the Reverenda Fabbrica, although not mentioned in the *Codex Iuris Canonici*, is nevertheless included among the Congregations that form part of the Roman Curia; it is composed solely of cardinals, to whom are added a Secretary-Economus and certain minor officials, and comprises an administrative section for the management of property, a legal section for the resolution of related disputes, a technical section charged with the maintenance of the Basilica, and finally the special section known as the *Museo*.

III. SUPPRESSED CONGREGATIONS

I. **S. C. (de auxiliis Divinae Gratiae).** — Established by Clement VIII to settle the controversies between Jesuits and Dominicans regarding the efficacy of grace. In the theological controversies of the 16th century, the Jesuits, influenced by their spirituality, emphasized human freedom, the non-intrinsic efficacy of grace, and predestination *post praeviam merita*. In this sense, Lessius (q.v.) expounded certain theses which, though approved at Louvain in 1587, were not so at Rome despite the efforts of the Dominicans, who deemed them contrary to the traditional doctrine of St. Augustine and St. Thomas.

In 1588, the Jesuit Molina published in Lisbon his work *Concordia liberi arbitrii cum Gratiae donis*, on which he had labored for years. Through the concept of *scientia media*, already developed by his teacher B. de Fonseca, he attempted to reconcile opposing theses, but with an effect quite different from what he had hoped. In short, against him and Báñez, the entire Dominican school rose in opposition, so that Clement VIII in 1596 took the matter in hand, which passed through five successive stages: 1) from November 1597 a secret commission examined Molina’s work. After the sessions of 22 November 1598, it concluded with the censure of 61 propositions. 2) Strong influences led the Pope to establish a cardinalial Congregation *de auxiliis Divinae Gratiae* to achieve a direct understanding between the parties. Various sessions in 1599-1600 proved these attempts futile. 3) The Pope then appointed a new cardinalial commission, which, after 20 sessions, on 12 October 1600 concluded with the condemnation of 21 of the incriminated propositions. On that very day, Molina died in Madrid. 4) Influences from both sides demanded a serene evaluation of the controversy; agreement was deferred, and the Pope decided to act personally. This was the most dramatic period. D. Alvarez (q.v.) and T. de Lemos (q.v.) for the Dominicans, and G. de Valentia (q.v.) and F. de la Bastida (q.v.) for the Jesuits defended their respective viewpoints. After each session of debate, the Pope and the cardinals judged the doctrines expounded. In all, 69 meetings were held. Clement VIII was increasingly inclined toward a condemnation of Molina when he died on 3 March 1605. D. Báñez (q.v.), the strongest supporter of the Dominicans, had preceded him on 21 October 1604.

After the brief pontificate of Leo XI, the controversy resumed under Paul V. From 14 September 1605 to 22 February 1606, nine sessions were held, which concluded with the condemnation of 42 Molinist propositions. On 28 August 1607, the Pope convened the cardinals for a final vote, which was highly discordant. Paul V then judged that, given the circumstances, he did not deem it opportune to issue a doctrinal decision. The theologians of both sides were forbidden to accuse one another of heresy, pending further measures; on 5 September following, this decision was entrusted to the generals of the two Orders (Denz-U, 1090 and added note; cf. 1097 and note).

II. **C. DELL'INDICE.** — Established by St. Pius V with the apostolic constitution *In apostolicae sedis* of 4 April 1571, confirmed and strengthened by his successor Gregory XIII with the constitution *Ut perfectae* of 13 September 1572; Benedict XIV, with the constitution *Sollicita* of 9 July 1753, established clear norms to be followed in the condemnation of books. Its task was indeed to examine books and publications of every kind to see whether they contained errors against the faith or Christian morals; if so, to condemn them and include them in the appropriate Index of Prohibited Books (q.v.). Its authority was universal and it also had the right to impose very severe penalties on authors, but this latter power was removed by Pius X with the constitution *Sapienti consilio* of 29 June 1908 and transferred to the competent tribunals; however, its sphere of inquiry was extended to include books to be published. The Congregation was suppressed by Benedict XV in 1917, and its attributions passed to the Holy Office.

III. **C. DELLE INDULGENZE E DELLE RELIQUIE.** — It was established by Clement IX with the motu proprio *In ipsis* of 6 July 1669, with the task of examining indulgences granted by the Holy See and relics, to distinguish the authentic from the doubtful and the false, since in the Middle Ages the abuse of disseminating and distributing false relics had become widespread. It later also had the competence to grant indulgences and distribute relics. It ceased to exist with the reform of Pius X (1908); the matters within its competence were first transferred to the Congregation of the Holy Office and then to the Apostolic Penitentiary; the matter concerning relics was entrusted to the Congregation of Rites.

IV. C. OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL INNUNTA – Established by Urban VIII in 1626 to handle controversies arising from the violation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and privileges by lay tribunals. Sixtus V had already addressed this matter by entrusting the protection of rights concerning ecclesiastical immunity to the C. of Bishops and Regulars. Urban VIII’s creation was confirmed in 1725 by Benedict XIII, who expanded its juridical scope; it was later reinforced by Gregory XVI with a *motu proprio* of 10 November 1834. In addition to its other duties, this C. was also empowered to hear appeals from cases decided in first instance by episcopal curiae.

V. C. «DE PROPAGANDA FIDE PRO NEGOTIIS RITUS ORIENTALIS» – Established within the C. of Propaganda Fide by Pius IX in 1862 through the constitution *Romani Pontificis* of 6 January, this dicastery was charged primarily with attending to the spiritual needs of Catholics of the Eastern rite. Since this office had absorbed the special commission to which Clement XI had entrusted the correction of Eastern liturgical books in the early 1700s, it consequently reserved this task to itself, in accordance with the provision contained in the aforementioned constitution of Pius IX: *«Orientaliun libris corrigendis, omnibusque et singulis cuiusque generis orientaliun negotiis tractandis unice operam navet»*.

The powers of this C. were significantly broader than those of Propaganda itself; it enjoyed all the faculties proper to the C. to which it was attached and could, moreover, grant dispensations for mixed religion, disparity of cult, and every other matrimonial dispensation. The reform carried out by Pius X in 1908 left this dicastery’s position unchanged, as it continued to be linked to the C. of Propaganda. Later, however, by virtue of the *motu proprio* *Dei providentis* of Benedict XV, dated 10 May 1917, it was released from that dependence and granted absolute independence, at the same time changing its ancient name to the C. for the Eastern Church (v. CHIESE ORIENTALI, CHIESE). Until then, the same cardinal prefect of Propaganda had served as its prefect, and the cardinals serving on both dicasteries had been the same; it had, however, its own secretary, consultors, and minor officials.

VI. C. FOR THE CORRECTION OF THE BOOKS OF THE EASTERN CHURCH – The decision to establish a body charged with emending errors in the liturgical texts of the Eastern Catholic Churches was taken by Urban VIII in response to a petition from Philip IV of Spain, who sought a definitive corrected edition of the Euchologion to replace the various privately printed versions that had appeared over time. The work required many years, and it was not until 1754, during the pontificate of Benedict XIV, that the fully corrected Euchologion was published by the press of Propaganda Fide, following the model of the Paris edition of 1647. Benedict XIV also reorganized this dicastery, as established by the constitution *Ex quo primum* of 19 March 1756. The C. consisted of a cardinal prefect, five other cardinals, and five consultors.

VII. C. OF BISHOPS AND REGULARS – This C. resulted from the merger of two dicasteries: one for the consultation of bishops (v. below) and one for the consultation of regulars (v. below). The exact date of this fusion cannot be determined with precision, but it must have occurred in the very early years of the 17th century, since under Clement VIII it is already referred to by the single title *Sacra Congregatio negotiis et consultationibus Episcoporum et Regularium praeposita*, composed of a varying number of cardinals, in addition to the prefect, a secretary, twenty consultors, and an adequate staff of subordinate officials.

Its competence was extremely broad, extending to all matters concerning bishops and religious of every order, with cumulative jurisdiction alongside that of the C. of the Council, the only difference being that it could not resolve doubts *authentically*. It also exercised contentious authority, initially limited to the handling of causes solely in an economic-administrative capacity; later, it obtained permission to treat them judicially as well, though by a procedure distinct from that of the Sacred Roman Rota. In 1800, Pius VII transferred to the latter the criminal appeals arising from diocesan curiae.

The C. was suppressed in the reform of Pius X in 1908, and its duties were divided: those pertaining to bishops were transferred to the Consistorial C., while those concerning religious were assigned to the C. of Religious; criminal matters passed to the tribunals.

VIII. C. FOR THE EXAMINATION OF BISHOPS – Established by Clement VIII in 1592 in response to a request from the Council of Trent, this C. was tasked with examining and declaring suitable candidates for episcopal sees. Urban VIII strengthened its authority and efficacy with a decree of 16 May 1625, binding examiners by oath not to disclose the subject matter of the examinations to anyone. This prohibition lapsed in the time of Clement XIII, and later the obligation of examinations—once required of all Italian bishops but from which those outside Italy could be dispensed—also lapsed. The C. was composed of cardinals, theologians, and canonists. The obligation of examinations was restored by Pius X in 1903 and transferred to the competence of the Holy Office.

IX. C. FOR THE ELECTION OF BISHOPS – Established by Innocent XI, this C. was charged with proposing candidates for episcopal sees after conducting a thorough examination of their merits and qualifications. Benedict XIV revived it with the constitution *Ad apostolicae* of 17 October 1740, urged by the secrecy of the Holy Office to ensure that all proceedings were conducted with greater care and circumspection. Despite this, the C. soon fell into disuse.

X. C. FOR THE RESIDENCE OF BISHOPS – Established by Urban VIII with the constitution *Sancta Synodus* of 12 December 1634, this C. was tasked with addressing matters related to the obligation of bishops to reside in their sees and the regulation of the duration of their absences beyond normal periods of leave, set at four months for bishops from regions this side of the Alps and seven for those from beyond. A more organic functioning was later provided by Benedict XIV with the constitution *Ad universae* of 3 September 1746, by which the prefecture of the C. was reserved to the cardinal vicar of Rome, while its secretary was the secretary of the C. of the Council. Further measures were subsequently taken in 1759 by Clement XIII and in 1824 by Leo XII.
XI. C. FOR APOSTOLIC VISITATION – Established by Clement VIII with the constitution *Speculatores* of 8 June 1592, this C. was charged with visiting dioceses and ensuring individual prelates complied with ecclesiastical discipline in its broadest sense. Its functions were first expanded in 1656 by Alexander VII, who enlarged its personnel; but more significant innovations were introduced in 1693 by Innocent XII, who not only extended its powers—entrusting it with civil, criminal, and mixed causes—but also decreed that no entity subject to visitation could evade it by claiming exemptions or privileges. To this end, decisions of the C. were made unappealable. The pope himself served as prefect, assisted by eleven cardinals, a secretary—who, by a report of 29 March 1801, was empowered to handle contentious matters privately—a vice-secretary, a chancellor, and a fiscal commissioner chosen from among the members of the Sacred Roman Rota.

XII. C. FOR THE REVISION OF PROVINCIAL COUNCILS. — The fervent revival of provincial councils led Pius IX to establish this C. in 1849 with the task of revising the acts of those councils, a responsibility that had been entrusted since 1588 to the C. of the Council. The new body, however, being considered as subsidiary to the latter, had the same prefect and the same secretary, to whom a particular secretary was later added, designated as the draftsman, entrusted with transmitting decisions regarding the acts of individual councils to the metropolitans; it also included twenty-six consultors, seven of whom were prelates and the others chosen from among members of various religious orders. The C. was suppressed in 1908 by Pius X, who, by entrusting once again to the C. of the Council «omnia quae ad Conciliorum celebrationem et recognitionem, atque ad Episcoporum coetus seu conferentias referuntur», restored the latter to a previous faculty.

XIII. C. «SUPER STATU ECCLESIARUM». — It was established by Benedict XIV on 23 Nov. 1740, for the examination of the reports that all Ordinaries are obliged to send periodically to Rome on the state of their dioceses. This duty originally fell within the specific competence of the C. of the Council, to which it had been entrusted by Sixtus V in 1588. Therefore, since this dicastery was considered auxiliary to the C. of the Council, it shared with it the prefect and the secretary, assisted by a suitable number of prelates; at the same time, it was also assigned a particular secretary, called the secretary for Latin letters to the bishops, whose duties consisted mainly in drafting and dispatching the C.’s responses to the bishops. This dicastery, which was also commonly called the C. of the Council, was suppressed in 1908 by Pius X, who transferred its attributions to the Consistorial C.

XIV. C. ON THE CONSULTATION OF BISHOPS. — The origins of this dicastery can be traced back to the special commission of cardinals appointed by Pius V to examine the report on the patriarchate of Aquileia, where serious ecclesiastical disorders had arisen, presented by the apostolic visitor sent there in 1570. The first beginnings, however, of this C. date to the pontificate of Gregory XIII, who, recognizing the usefulness of such visits, promoted others, leaving the aforementioned commission always in charge of examining the visitors’ reports. In 1601 it merged with the C. of Bishops and Regulars.

XV. C. ON THE STATE OF REGULARS. — The laxity of regular discipline in many convents in Italy, where the small number of members—sometimes fewer than six—practically nullified the purpose of their foundation, induced Innocent X to undertake a broad inquiry and then to decree the suppression of a large part of those communities. For this purpose, with the constitution *Inter coetera* of 17 Dec. 1649, he established the present C., which was therefore tasked with examining the administration of each convent, the number of its members, and taking whatever measures were necessary to eliminate the abuses that had come to light.

The institution of this dicastery was subsequently confirmed by Clement IX with the constitution *Inutili* of 11 Apr. 1668; it was composed of several cardinals besides the prefect, the secretary (who was the same as that of the C. of Bishops and Regulars), and a varying number of priests.

In 1698 Innocent XII, with the constitution *Debitum pastoralis* of 4 Aug., decreed its suppression, replacing it with the C. for Regular Discipline.

XVI. C. ON THE CONSULTATION OF REGULARS. — The most distant traces of this C. are to be found in the work undertaken by Gregory XIII to resolve the disputes that often arose between bishops and regulars regarding privileges and to settle intolerable conflicts among the various monastic orders. Initially established simply under the name of *Commissio* in 1582, it received the name *Sacra Congregatio super consultationibus Regularium* in 1582, functioning alongside the C. on the Consultation of Bishops, erected a few years earlier by the same pope. The reform of Sixtus V in 1587–88 did not affect the two creations of Gregory XIII, which were both inserted separately into the new order established by the constitution *Immensa aeterni Dei* of 22 Jan. However, their close relationship soon drew attention to the desirability of merging the two dicasteries, and although the exact date cannot be determined with certainty, it is certain that during the pontificate of Clement VIII the union must already have been in effect, since after 1600 they were already indicated under the common appellation *Sacra Congregatio super consultationibus Episcoporum et Regularium*, or more simply the C. of Bishops and Regulars (see above), remaining such until the reform of Pius X in 1908, when it was abolished.

XVII. C. FOR REGULAR DISCIPLINE. — It was established by Innocent XII in 1698 in place of the dissolved C. on the State of Regulars (see above), with the purpose of examining applications for the foundation of new convents and the reconstitution of those that had been suppressed.

The C. concerned itself both with the internal discipline of convents and with the functioning of model convents—few in number for each religious order—where the Rule was observed in all its rigor, as they were meant to represent for all adherents the model according to which monastic life was to be practiced. Its activity suffered a severe stagnation due to the political upheavals of the late 18th century; however, it was revived by Pius VII. Later, Gregory XVI took steps to eliminate the inconveniences arising from jurisdictional interference between it and the C. of Bishops and Regulars, ordering that cases rejected by the former could in no way be resubmitted to the competence of the latter. This C. consisted of the cardinal prefect and a certain number of other cardinals (up to sixteen), the secretary, the substitute, the fiscal advocate, and seven consultors. It was suppressed by Pius X in 1906.

XVIII. C. OF THE VATICAN PRINTING HOUSE. — Established by Sixtus V in 1588 with the constitution *Immensa aeterni Dei*, with the task of overseeing the proper functioning of the Vatican Printing House, particularly ensuring the correct publication of religious works such as the Bible, the Church Fathers, and the Decretals, intended to counter the false theories of the new heretics with the enduring truth of Catholic doctrine.

The Vatican Printing House had been founded in 1560 by Pius IV, who called the Venetian Paolo Manuzio to direct it, and was installed in the Vatican in 1587 by Sixtus V, who made great use of it and also equipped it with a rich foundry of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac typefaces.

XIX. C. FOR THE REBUILDING OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL. — One of the first concerns of Leo XII was the reconstruction of the basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls, severely damaged by the fire of the night of 15–16 July 1823. Since, however, the papal treasury could not meet all the necessary expenses, with the encyclical *Ad plurimas atque gravissimas* of 25 Jan. 1825 addressed to the Catholic world, he invited all the faithful to contribute to the undertaking. The appeal met with universal acceptance, so that the Pope was able to immediately arrange for the commencement of the works, and to ensure that they were carried out in a unified manner and in the best way possible, he established, by the ordinance of 26 Mar. 1825, a special C. to which he entrusted its supervision. The new C. consisted of five cardinals, three prelates, the general treasurer, the secretary, and a certain number of architects. The prefecture was reserved for the Cardinal Secretary of State.

XX. SACRED CONGREGATION OF LORETO

It was erected by Innocent XII by the constitution *Sacrosancta Redemptionis* of 10 August 1698, with the purpose of providing for the spiritual and temporal administration of the Holy House of Loreto. The spiritual administration was delegated to the diocesan Order, while the temporal administration was entrusted to a governing prelate. It was endowed with a threefold administrative power—grace and contentious—for the handling of all causes, both civil and criminal. The latter power was later withdrawn by Pius VII in 1816 and restored shortly afterward by Leo XII through the brief *Laureti civitas* of 21 December 1827. This dicastery was composed of a cardinal prefect, twelve voting prelates, an assessor, a secretary, an undersecretary, a criminal auditor, and several minor officials.

After the occupation of the Picenum in 1860, when the Italian Government reserved to itself the administration of the Sanctuary of Loreto (*R. D.* 30 October 1860, no. 233, art. 5), the Sacred Congregation was left with no authority except regarding legacies. Finally, it was annexed by Pius X in 1908 to the Sacred Congregation of the Council as a *Congregatio specialis*, and today, in the absence of any mention in the *Codex Iuris Canonici*, it must be considered suppressed.

XXI. SACRED CONGREGATION FOR CHINA AND THE EAST INDIES

Established by Alexander VII for the handling of all affairs concerning the Indies and China, this Congregation held its first session on 13 January 1665, though it only assumed the rank of a true dicastery in 1677, during the pontificate of Innocent XI. It had to deal with the thorny question of the Chinese Rites, which later became a major issue during the time of Clement XI (cf. Pastor, XV, pp. 301-70). It was composed of several cardinal members of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide and had as its secretary the secretary of Propaganda itself.

XXII. SACRED CONGREGATION "DE REBUS GERMANICIS"

It was established by Pius V in 1568 for the study of the grave religious and disciplinary questions in Germany (cf. Pastor, VIII, p. 467; IX, pp. 45, 867-79).

XXIII. SACRED CONGREGATION FOR THE REFORM OF THE CURIA: V. CURIA.

Niccolò Del Re

IV. THE SACRED CONGREGATIONS IN THE CIVIL ADMINISTRATION OF THE PONTIFICAL STATE.

The civil administration of the Pontifical State was presided over in Rome by various magistracies, some of which, at different times, were called Sacred Congregations. It is well known that in the proper terminology of the Roman Curia, this term has been used not only to designate certain of the great central bodies of a permanent nature, charged with specific branches of the temporal administration of the State—very similar to modern ministries—but also smaller bodies of a temporary nature, created from time to time by the pope for the study and resolution of particular questions, which today would be called "commissions," as well as other bodies which, though intended to be permanent, had limited consultative functions within a larger magistracy and thus resemble the "superior councils" existing today in certain ministries. In this category may be included the properly so-called *Congregazioni camerali*, which in the 17th century are found constituted within the Apostolic Chamber (v.).

The matters handled by the Sacred Congregations were not only administrative but also judicial, so that certain tribunals in certain periods were also called Sacred Congregations, e.g., the Civil Congregation of the Tribunal of the Auditor of the Apostolic Chamber (1831-48), which later became (1848-70) the Civil Tribunal of Rome.

Many Sacred Congregations, in the various meanings of the term, are encountered in the administrative history of the Pontifical State, beginning especially from the early 16th century, when, the temporal dominion having been politically consolidated, the popes were able to give it a central and peripheral administrative organization along the lines of those being implemented in the other states of the peninsula. Magistracies bearing this designation are found up until the mid-19th century, when the reforms of Pius IX completely renewed the bureaucratic organization of the State and sought to establish ministries. Only exceptionally did some Sacred Congregations survive, such as, for example, the Sacred Congregation of Studies, which after 1849 absorbed the abolished Ministry of Public Instruction and which ceased, with regard to public instruction in the Pontifical State, on 20 September 1870, as, indeed, did every other pontifical magistracy.

While for many of these Sacred Congregations it is often possible to indicate the date and papal document of their institution, it is not always possible to determine the moment of their dissolution, which for some occurred through their merger with other bodies, while others were maintained as honorary bodies or even with different competencies. Frequently, moreover, certain Sacred Congregations ceased with the disappearance of the matter within their competence; thus, the Sacred Congregation of the Vatican Printing House (established by Sixtus V by the bull *Immenza*), which had moments of particular importance due to the great publishing initiatives of that pope, ceased when Paul V merged this printing house with the Apostolic Chamber printing house, which was already subject to its own supervisory organs.

Normally, the Sacred Congregations were composed of cardinals, who, together with technical experts, formed the directing body of the Congregation, also called the "Presidency," so that in certain periods the Sacred Congregations themselves are referred to as "Presidenze." Usually, a Sacred Congregation was presided over by a cardinal; its central organization consisted of a certain number of officials assisted by notaries for the drafting of acts (normally, the notaries came from those attached to the office of the Auditor of the Apostolic Chamber). In the periphery, the Sacred Congregation was represented by delegates who often had their own office and position within the hierarchy of provincial officials.

Rarely did the Sacred Congregations for administrative affairs of the territory meet in plenary session in the presence of the pope, this being reserved only for cases of extraordinary importance; ordinarily, they met in the Vatican Palace or in their own seat when they had one, but very often the meeting took place at the normal office residence of the president. Only the most important acts were submitted to the pope for signature; during a Sede vacante, they were signed by the cardinal heads of the Orders.

Moreover, there were very many Sacred Congregations which, by their nature, would better be called commissions, and indeed, especially in the first half of the 19th century, similar bodies were established and indifferently called either "Commission" or "Congregation," e.g., the Commission charged with the restoration of the basilica of St. Paul (Leo XII, 1825) was also called a Sacred Congregation (see above). One may also recall the Sacred Congregation for the Revision of Entities and Properties Alienated during the Napoleonic Period and the Commission for the Revision of Claims against France, established by edict of 9 September 1819: the Sacred Congregation for the Revision of Final Accounts prior to 1848 and the Commission for the Liquidation of Claims prior to July 1849.

Previously (17th–18th centuries), however, the Congregations established for the study of particular questions were generally called particular deputations, some of which became in fact permanent, such as the Congregation of the Spoils, which dealt with the goods of deceased ecclesiastics and of cardinals elected as popes (a very long list of these Congregations, mostly concerning the administration of the Papal States, whether for resolving general problems or those of individual cities or families, can be seen in A. Lodolini, op. cit. in bibliography, pp. 69–72).

Bibliography: Besides the general bibliography for all Congregations, V. A. Villetti, Pratica della Curia romana, Rome 1797; J. Spizzichino, Magistratura dello Stato pontificio, Lanciano 1930; A. Lodolini, L’Archivio di Stato di Roma e l’Archivio del Regno. Indice generale storico descrittori, Rome 1932; A. Ventrone, L’Amministrazione dello Stato pontificio dal 1814 al 1870, 1814. Of the fifteen compiled in the 17th–18th centuries for the various papal offices, of particular interest is: Elenchus Congregationum aliorumque structum sec. Roma 1629. The archives of many of the larger areas and Congregations relating to the administration of the Ecclesiastical State are now preserved in the State Archive of Rome.

Below are listed the best-known of the magistracies intended for the government of the Papal States, or otherwise connected with its administration, which were called Congregations, arranged in alphabetical order.

I. **CONGREGATION FOR ABUNDANCE** – Established by Sixtus V (by the constitution Immensa aeterni Dei of 22 January 1588) to remedy the periodic famines afflicting the Papal States. The Pope endowed it with a capital of 200,000 scudi, which he declared the patrimony of the poor, to be used for the purchase of grain to be distributed to the people. The Congregation, which already during the pontificate of Sixtus V had not lived up to the purposes for which it had been created, had a brief existence.

II. **CONGREGATION FOR WATERS AND ROADS** – Established by Sixtus V by the constitution Immensa aeterni Dei of 22 January 1588, and reorganized in 1590 by the Supremi cura regiminis, it was tasked with maintaining the roads, bridges, and aqueducts of the Papal States; later also with the preservation of riverbanks and the draining of marshes. This Congregation brought together the competencies of several ancient magistracies, which after Sixtus V were revived and refounded according to what the pontiffs deemed most expedient for regulating this important matter. Alongside the Congregation, following its judicial competence in matters of roadways, arose the Tribunal of Roads. By edict of 8 June 1833, Gregory XVI established the Prefecture of Waters and Roads, which, enriched with similar attributions previously held by the treasurer and the camerlengo, merged in 1848—and would remain part of it until 1870—in the Ministry of Public Works, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce, and Fine Arts.

III. **ANCONA CONGREGATION** – Established by Clement XII in 1734 to oversee the functioning of the port of Ancona, which he had rebuilt and to which he had granted special customs exemptions.

IV. **CONGREGATION OF AVIGNON** – Also called the Congregation of Avignon and Carpentras, from the names of the most important cities in the territory that the Holy See possessed in France. It was established by Innocent XII by rescript of 7 February 1673, mentioned in the constitution Romanum decretum Pontificem of 2 June 1692, and was charged with governing that province; it also heard appeals against the sentences of the vice-legate resident in Avignon. The Congregation, composed of prelates and civil officials, was normally presided over by the Cardinal Secretary of State and had the competencies and powers previously held by the cardinal legates who had governed those territories in the name of the Holy See. Given the considerable revenues derived from this administration for the Holy See, the Congregation enjoyed periods of particular importance. Clement XIV, by the brief Dudum iam Romani pontificis of 1774, reduced its powers and transformed it into a Presidency, which was suppressed a few years later after the Treaty of Tolentino (19 February 1797, art. 6), by which the Holy See renounced in favor of France all its rights over Avignon and its territory (cf. F. Benoit, Les archives de la S. Congr. d'Ave. au Vatican, 1673–1770, Avignon 1924).

V. **CONGREGATION ABOVE THE BARONS OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL STATE** – Established by Clement VIII by the bull Iustitiae of 25 June 1596, its purpose was to defend communities and vassals from the abuses of the barons, especially regarding the non-payment of debts or the initiation, for dilatory purposes, of legal disputes. The Congregation also had judicial power in such matters, and appeals against its sentences were admitted to the Signature of Grace. It survived until 1796.

VI. **CONGREGATION FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT** – Established by Clement VIII by the bull Pro commissa nobis of 15 August 1592, to safeguard the interests of the communities of the State, regulating their economic and financial activity and overseeing revenues and expenditures. It wielded great authority and exerted influence over the governance of populations, having succeeded in imposing on municipalities the establishment and proper maintenance of budgets, the creation of cadasters for the apportionment of taxes (for which purpose a Congregation of Cadaster was established within it). The Congregation also conducted censuses of the State’s population, supervised the conduct of elections to municipal offices, and had judicial competence in civil, criminal, and mixed cases where communities were plaintiffs or defendants. It ensured the exact execution of its provisions by periodically sending visitors to every municipality, who then drew up extensive reports that still constitute an important source for local history and bear witness to the care with which these inspections were often conducted. Clement VIII’s bull was inserted into the statutes of individual municipalities, and all officials were required to swear scrupulous observance of II. The subject of particular care by the popes, its competence was expanded and better defined through various reforms, especially under Paul V, Clement XII, Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VII.
The importance of the Congregation diminished in the early years of the 19th century. By edict of 5 July 1831, Gregory XVI stripped it of any role in the administration of municipalities and left it, but only in certain cases, with appellate judicial competence. It ceased to function following the reforms of Pius IX on 31 December 1847. Its important archive has been incorporated into the State Archive.

VII. **GENERAL CENSUS CONGREGATION** – Pius VII, by motu proprio of 6 July 1816, appointed a Congregation, called the Congregation of Cadaster, to oversee the operations for the formation of the new rural and urban cadaster that he had ordered, aiming for the greatest possible uniformity in taxation and to correct any errors of measurement and assessment in the previous cadastral surveys. The Congregation, composed of prelates and technicians, was presided over by a cardinal; in 1822 it changed its name to the General Census Congregation, and on that occasion its competencies and powers were better defined. The technical survey work was completed with the compilation of more than 4,000 maps, containing descriptions of approximately 4 million plots, accompanied by their respective “catastini,” on which assessment began. In 1835, following complaints and requests for correction, a general revision was ordered, for the implementation of which Gregory XVI created the Presidency of the Census, under the direction of a cardinal, which absorbed the following Congregation of Boundaries.

VIII. C. DEI CONFINI. — Established by Urban VIII (constitution *Debitum* of 1 Oct. 1627) to oversee the territorial integrity of the Papal State and to prevent the unlawful alienation of castles and lands, as well as to monitor the spread of contagious diseases from neighboring states. This Congregation had a brief existence, as its competence was absorbed by other offices, such as the Secretariat of State, insofar as it concerned the oversight of territorial integrity, and by the Sacred Consulta for the sanitary aspect.

IX. C. DELLA S. CONSULTA (Congregatio pro Consultationibus negociorum Status ecclesiastici). — Sixtus V, with the constitution *Immensa*, gave form and name to a body already created by Paul IV, composed of four cardinals who were to preside over the affairs of the Papal State. With the Sistine reform, the Congregation consisted of five cardinals and the Secretary of State, who served as its prefect; to these were reserved the handling of the most important matters, along with a variable number—from six to eight—of prelates known as “ponens,” who presided over the affairs of the individual “ponenti” (territorial subdivisions of the State). The Congregation also had broad civil, criminal, and mixed jurisdiction over appeals against feudal lords, governors, the elections of magistrates, and all matters pertaining to public health. State representatives in the provinces and local officials were required to report to the Congregation any serious cases occurring within their jurisdiction. Over time, the Congregation’s judicial competence became its principal activity, whence its more commonly known name, the Tribunal of the Sacred Consulta. It had jurisdiction over all crimes committed by laypersons or of mixed forum but attributable to laypersons; cases of particular delicacy could be submitted to II. The sentences of the Sacred Consulta served as precedents for other tribunals.

X. C. ECONOMICA. — Established by Benedict XIV with the constitution *Igitur* of 18 Apr. 1746 for the proper management and administration of the papal treasury, the study and preparation of measures intended to improve the functioning of the economic offices of Rome and other cities of the State, with particular regard to those of the Apostolic Chamber. Having ceased to function toward the end of the 18th century, it was restored by Pius VII with the edict of 9 July 1800; by a decree of the Secretariat of State dated 26 July 1815, its competence was significantly expanded to include oversight of the Treasury and the Buon Governo, while its prior opinion became mandatory on all measures concerning commerce, industry, duties, and customs.

XI. C. FERMANA. — Established by Innocent XII with the bull *Constantis fidei* of 3 Jan. 1692 for the political and economic governance of the city and territory of Fermo, with the competence and powers of the Congregation of the Sacred Consulta. Benedict XIV reformed its composition in 1746 and subsequently decreed that the territory of Fermo would not be subject to the jurisdiction of the Congregation of the Buon Governo. Clement XIII (1761) abolished the Congregation and subjected the territory of Fermo to ordinary jurisdiction like any other locality in the Papal State.

XII. C. MILITARE. — Established by Pius VII to consolidate into a single body the offices responsible for military administration, which had hitherto been divided between the Commissariat of Arms for land forces and the Commissariat of the Sea, which also included coastal defense and which were administratively overseen by two clerics of the Chamber. By dispatch of 1 June 1832, Gregory XVI, in reorganizing the armed forces of the State, abolished this Congregation and established the Presidency of Arms, which, following the *motu proprio* of Pius IX of 29 Dec. 1847, became the Ministry of Arms. The Congregazione Militare should not be confused with the homonymous or Military Vicariate (*Castrense*), established by Gregory XVI in 1838 for the spiritual welfare of the military.

XIII. C. NAVALE. — Established by Sixtus V (constitution *Immensa*) for the formation and arming of the fleet for the defense of the Papal State; after reconstituting an initial nucleus of ships, its competence was assigned to the cleric of the Chamber commissioner for the sea.

XIV. C. COVERNATIVA DELLE PROVINCE DELLO STATO PONTIFICIO. — Established by a *motu proprio* of Pius VII in 1816, with advisory functions for matters of some importance concerning the administration of the delegations, as entrusted to it by the delegate; subsequently (1831), it acquired deliberative functions regarding budgets and related matters; Pius IX (1850) decreed that, for matters not expressly within its competence, it would have only advisory functions. The Congregation consisted of two or four members, depending on the importance (class) of the delegation, renewable every five years by lot among citizens of certain categories. In 1811, the number of its members was fixed at four, and the system of renewal was modified; finally (1850), it was established that two members would be chosen from among the provincial councilors, who for this purpose ceased to be members of their respective councils.

XV. C. PER LA REVISIONE DEI CONTI. — Established by Leo XII with a *motu proprio* of 21 Dec. 1828, it was tasked with reviewing the general budget of the Apostolic Chamber and the budgets of other State administrations, as well as overseeing the contracts and tenders of public administrations; it also had the authority to submit to the pope proposals for improving the system of financial and tax administration. It decided, in an administrative capacity, disputes relating to Chamber contracts, and, with exclusive contentious jurisdiction, cases concerning exemptions from Chamber duties. Composed of four clerics of the Chamber who served in annual rotation, it was entrusted by Gregory XVI to a cardinal (edict of 21 Nov. 1833). The Congregation ceased to exist on 15 Nov. 1848 with the entry into function of the Council of State, which absorbed its competence.

XVII. C. SPECIALE SANITARIA. — Established by Gregory XVI with an ordinance of 20 July 1834, for the study and reform of sanitary legislation and the regulation of related matters and professions; it had the authority to issue binding decrees even for persons subject to privileged forum and could avail itself, for executive acts, of the secretariat of the Sacred Consulta.

XVIII. C. DEGLI SGRAVI. — Established by Sixtus V (constitution *Immensa*) to decide, in summary proceedings, cases of unjust levies and impositions of tribute by the various magistrates of the State.

XVIII. C. DEL SOLLIEVO. — Established by Clement XI with a chirograph of 1 Feb. 1701 to revive agriculture and, in general, the public economy; for this purpose, the Congregation solicited suggestions and proposals from all citizens, some of which led to useful initiatives, though these were not pursued further, as they had to pass through the competent ordinary offices, which nearly always shelved them. Thus, after three years of intense activity, the Congregation ceased to meet and was abolished in 1715.

XIX. C. DEL TERRORE DEGLI UFFIZIALI DI ROMA. — Established by Paul IV on 22 Jan. 1557, with the specific mandate to hear complaints and receive petitions from all who appealed to it to seek justice against the violence perpetrated against them by public employees of every rank and condition. It thus served to suppress the dishonesty of those officials who, taking advantage of their position, committed abuses of power, and to regulate any disputes that might arise between them and citizens. The Congregation consisted of twenty cardinals and forty prelates under the presidency of the pope himself; once a month, it admitted petitioners to a public audience to hear their grievances and proceed accordingly.

XX. C. ON THE ARTISTIC UNIVERSITIES OF ROME

Established by Pius IX through a motu proprio of 14 May 1852, with the aim of proposing and implementing whatever was deemed opportune to promote both industrial development and the religious aspect of the associations of art and crafts in Rome. The C., presided over by the Cardinal Vicar, was composed of the Senator and the Prelate Vice-President of the "Roma e Comarca."

XXI. C. OF THE ROMAN UNIVERSITY

Established by Sixtus V (constitution *Immensa*); besides overseeing the proper functioning of the Roman University, it was also tasked with directing the universities founded under the authority of the Holy See, those of the Papal States, and the colleges in general, with a competence—not easily definable—over public instruction. To find an organization that would oversee the public schools in the Papal States, one must go as far as Leo XII, who, with the bull *Quod divina sapientia* of 29 August 1824, definitively established the C. of Studies (it should be noted, however, that this important measure stemmed from preparatory studies conducted by a C. likewise called of Studies and instituted by Pius VII through a decree of 20 July 1816). The C. was composed of the Cardinal Secretary of State, the Camerlengo, and the Prefects of the C. of the Index and of the Good Government. With the accession of Pius IX, the C. was renamed the Ministry of Public Instruction, but by a letter of 9 August 1849, the C. was restored, which, regarding matters pertinent to public instruction in the ecclesiastical state, functioned until 1870.

XXII. C. OF SURVEILLANCE

Established by Leo XII through a motu proprio of 28 February 1826, to oversee the conduct of all employees in the administrations of the State, acting directly or investigating complaints sent by private individuals. It proceeded in its operations with the strictest secrecy; it decided by a majority of votes, was composed of cardinals and prelates, and its Prefect was the Secretary of State. It had a very brief existence and, in this regard, also recalls the so-called C. of the Terror of the Officials of Rome, instituted by Paul IV in 1557 with the same purposes. — V. tav. XVI.