THIRTY YEARS’ WAR. – In 1608 the German Protestants formed the Evangelical Union, against which the following year the “Catholic League” arose. In 1618 the Defenestration of Prague was the signal for a political and religious revolt by Bohemia against the Habsburgs: the Bohemians requested aid from the Evangelical Union and elected Frederick, Elector Palatine, as their king. But in 1620 he was defeated by Ferdinand II; this was followed, under the auspices of the Catholic League, by vigorous “Counter-Reformation” action, which extended to Austria and Silesia. The Evangelical Union was dissolved.
To curb the excessive power of the Habsburgs, Richelieu, while fighting the Huguenots in France, encouraged the intervention of Christian IV of Denmark against the Empire; Christian was placed at the head of the reconstituted Evangelical Union, but, defeated by Wallenstein, was forced to make peace. France then brought about the entry into the war of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, after defeating the Imperials at Leipzig, fell on the field at Lützen (1632). In 1635 the Emperor concluded the Peace of Prague with the German Protestants, suspending the Edict of Restitution for forty years. France and Sweden did not adhere to this peace. Richelieu, having now subdued the Huguenots, decided on the direct intervention of France, which declared war on Austria and Spain. From this moment the conflict lost its original character as a war of religion and became a struggle for predominance. The French won at Rocroi (1643) and at Freiburg, while Mazarin, through his diplomatic skills, isolated the Habsburgs. In 1648 several peace treaties were concluded in various
places (Münster, Osnabrück), collectively known as the Treaty of Westphalia. By this treaty France obtained Alsace and had its possession of the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun confirmed. Sweden and Brandenburg increased their territories. Switzerland and Holland were recognized as independent. The Treaty settled the religious question by granting an amnesty for occupied properties. By granting toleration to the Protestants, it sanctioned the rupture of the religious unity of the Christian world.