SLOVAKIA (Slovensko). – A historical region of Central Europe, formerly part of Hungary (906–1918), then of Czechoslovakia (1918–39), then an independent state (1939–45), and now, once again, part of Czechoslovakia.
I. GEOGRAPHY
The traditional borders of Slovakia, which between March 1939 and May 1945 constituted a stable unit separated from Czechoslovakia, are marked to the west (toward Moravia) by the ridge of the White Carpathians and the lower course of the Morava River, and to the east by the valley of the Ung River, which separates it from the so-called Subcarpathian Russia (now annexed, under the name of Transcarpathia, to the Soviet Ukraine). The Beskids form to the north the traditional frontier with Poland and to the south the Morava River that with Austria, while the border with Hungary, except for an initial stretch (the Danube), is entirely conventional. Slovakia covers 48,957 sq. km. (approximately the combined area of Piedmont and Lombardy).Slovakia consists of a larger northern part, made up of a series of fairly high elevations (the Gerlachovka, in the Tatra Mountains, reaches 2,663 m.), covered with forests, massive and monotonous, yet traversed by longitudinal valleys (the upper valleys of the Váh and Hron Rivers, flowing into the Danube; the Poprad River, a tributary of the Vistula) and transverse ones, on whose floors cultivation and settlements are possible; and a southern part, where the plains open up, the most important of which stretches along the Danube, between the mouths of the Morava and Hron Rivers.
The population (12.5 million inhabitants; density 72 per sq. km., 53 in the mountainous regions, 110 in the SW plain) includes one-fifth of allogeneic groups (Hungarians, Jews); the rest consists of Slovaks, akin to the neighboring Czechs and, like them, belonging to the Western Slavs, but distinguished by the strong influence they underwent during the nine centuries of Magyar subjugation.
The economy of Slovakia combines modest agricultural resources (for the Eger, Szász, Balaton, etc.), which, with their agricultural activity, have contributed to maintaining the stability of the population and preserving its agricultural activity.
Only one city, Bratislava, the capital, exceeds 100,000 inhabitants (185,000 in 1950); of the remaining ones, the most notable are Komárno (31,000 inhabitants), another port on the Danube, and Košice (61,000 inhabitants), in the upper basin of the Hernad (Tibisco) River, the economic and cultural center of eastern Slovakia.
II. HISTORY
Before the Slavs, Celtic and Germanic tribes occupied the territory of Slovakia: Marcomanni, Quadi, Boii, Huns, etc. The Roman Empire, from its fortified limes on the Danube, in the 2nd century A.D. pushed beyond II. Emperor Marcus Aurelius intended to form a new imperial province precisely on Slovak territory and twice personally led his legions in wars across the Danube (A.D. 169–75 and 180). A Roman legion was stationed at the site of today’s city of Trenčín (then Laugaritio) and here inscribed a dedicatory inscription on the rock. This is the oldest written monument in Slovak territory (A.D. 179). The first Christians were precisely the Roman soldiers of Marcus Aurelius. The historical reliefs on the Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome preserve the memory of a miraculous rain, obtained through the prayers of Christian soldiers (cf. H. Grisar, Il prof. della legio fulminata, in Civ. Catt., 1895, 1, pp. 716–24).The Slavs (Slovieni, Slovaks) crossed the Carpathians in the 6th century and settled in the Danubian plain and beyond, in Pannonia, holding it firmly, although in the following centuries part of the Croats, then the Avars and finally the Hungarians passed through. In the 7th century the leader Samo attempted to organize the first Slavic state in
of Cardinal Archbishop Péter Pázmány (q.v.) having made Trnava the center of Catholic irradiation for the surrounding regions.
With the Turkish invasion, the Kingdom of Hungary shrank to present-day Slovakia, with Bratislava (Pressburg) as its capital. Throughout the 17th century, religious wars raged in Slovakia between the imperial Catholic party and the Protestant party, led by the princes of Transylvania (G. Bethlen, G. Rákóczy, Thököly, etc.). They ended only in the 18th century with the Edict of Tolerance of Joseph II in 1781. A consequence of Joseph II’s religious reforms (q.v.) was the dissolution of contemplative religious orders, so that all ancient Orders disappeared from Slovakia, except for the Premonstratensians of Jasov (q.v.), who remained as a teaching Order. Only later were the Benedictines able to establish themselves in Komárno. Cloistered nuns also disappeared entirely. For the formation of the secular clergy, Joseph II established a general seminary in the royal castle in Bratislava. With the so-called “religious fund” (former Jesuit property), Joseph organized and endowed many new parishes, while the educational institutions taken from the Jesuits were replaced by those of the Piarists and Premonstratensians. Only in 1853 were the Jesuits able to return to Trnava, and then to Bratislava.
In the 20th century, on the other hand, there was a revival with the penetration of new religious congregations: Christian Brothers, Redemptorists, Salesians, Verbites, Consolators, etc. During the 19th century, after the Edict of Tolerance, peace finally came in the religious sphere. From that time on, the number of Protestants (Lutherans) remained stationary (16%). The revolutionary ideas of the West had no influence in the ecclesiastical sphere, and the Church occupied a privileged position until 1918: the bishops were treated as princes and the traditional system of pastoral care remained intact, the people being deeply religious. On the other hand, the national awakening began, led by Catholic priests grouped around the priest Bernolák. This movement was initially neglected by the Hungarians
Central Orepa: but only from the 9th century do we have news of the indigenous organization of the various tribes. The oldest center in Slovakia was the principality of Nitra, later absorbed into Great Moravia, when the Prince of Nitra Svatopluk became its king (870–94). The Christianization of the Slovaks began at the beginning of the 9th century with German missionaries, especially from the diocese of Passau. Prince Pribina had the first Christian church built in his castle at Nitra, consecrated ca. 833 by Archbishop Adalram of Salzburg. To counter the strong German influence, Prince Rastislav invited SS. Cyril and Methodius (q.v.) to Moravia, who, with the consent of the popes, gave rise to the Slavic Catholic Church and spread Christian culture among the northern Slavic peoples. The Slovak state, however, was occupied by the Hungarians in 906 and until 1918 Slovakia politically belonged to Hungary, while the Slavic liturgy and culture were supplanted by the Western Latin.
From the 11th century, the missionary work of monastic orders also began; the Benedictines settled at Zobor (1000), Sv. Beňadik (1075), Opátska near Košice (1143), and in twelve other monasteries. Then came the Cistercians (Lipovník 1141, Štiavnikina Spiš 1223); the Premonstratensians (Bzovík 1130, Jasov); the Carthusians (Lapis refugii-Skala útočišťa 1299); the Augustinians (Veľký Šariš 1270); the Paulines (Mariánka 1377); the Franciscans (Bratislava 1240, Trnava 1240, Okoličné 1314); the Dominicans (Gelnica 1288, Košice 1300), etc.
From the 12th century onward, German merchants and craftsmen, invited by kings and granted privileges, settled in the metalliferous mountain regions, founding flourishing cities (e.g., Kremnica, Banská Štiavnica, Kežmarok, etc.) rich in important Gothic monuments. Over time, many of these settlers assimilated into the Slavic population, while others, particularly in the Spiš (Zips) region and around Kremnica, remained until 1945, when they were compelled to leave the country.
The Turkish invasions also paved the way for the Protestant Reformation, which was facilitated by inadequate ecclesiastical structures. The Slovak territory was divided between the two dioceses of Nitra and Strigonia, the latter of which remained vacant for a critical 34 years and, in 1543, had to relocate to Trnava, where it remained for three centuries.
The restoration of Catholicism was primarily advanced by Archbishop Nicolao Oláh (1553–68), who invited the Jesuits. They established themselves in Trnava in 1561 and, by the 17th century, had 22 houses in the territory of present-day Slovakia. In 1635, they founded the University of Trnava (transferred to Budapest in 1776), as well as a law academy in Košice, various colleges, residences, and missionary stations. Many of them suffered martyrdom in this work of Catholic restoration, such as the Blessed Martyrs of Košice (v.).
After 1848, this effort was encouraged by the Austrians but later, after 1867, came under pressure from the Hungarian government. While, following the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Slovak bishops were appointed in Slovakia, from 1867 onward, a period of Magyar dominance began. The bishops of Slovakia were exclusively Hungarian, while the Slovak people were served by simple Slovak priests, who were often persecuted for this, such as Radlinský, Slotta, Mišík, Hlinka, Medvecký, and Osvald. This situation provoked a nationalist, secular opposition against the Church at the beginning of the 20th century, led by the "Hlasisti" school, disciples of Masaryk. The opposition did not degenerate into outright apostasy among the masses after 1918, as it did in Bohemia, thanks to the steadfast Catholicism of priests like Hlinka and Vojtaššák.
With the war in 1918, Slovakia severed its millennia-old ties with Hungary and became part of Czechoslovakia. As a result, six bishops were expelled or left the country voluntarily, leaving only one of German origin (Fischer-Colbrie in Košice). However, by December 1920, the Holy See was able to appoint the first three Slovak bishops, followed by four more, marking the beginning of a new era in ecclesiastical life.
During the twenty years of the Czechoslovak Republic (1918–38), Slovak Catholics, organized within the Slovak People’s Party led by Hlinka, effectively fought to reclaim their rights. Thus, Catholic marriage laws, schools, and youth organizations were safeguarded, and the spread of propaganda for a Czechoslovak national church among Latins and for Orthodox schism among Greek Catholics was prevented.
During the period of the independent Slovak Republic (1939–45), the Catholic People’s Party took control of the country, and the priest Jozef Tiso was elected president. Despite the wartime conditions, Catholic institutions continued to develop. The Holy See’s representative resided in Bratislava, and agreements were reached between the state and the Church on the funding of Slovak schools, the establishment of the Catholic Academy of Sciences, and the Central Office of Catholic Action, among other initiatives.
After the war (1945–51), the reconstituted Czechoslovakia fell under Soviet influence, and communism took hold. Catholics were first excluded from public life, and after the communist coup in February 1948, open persecution of the Church began. By 1952, the situation had deteriorated to the point where the Church in Slovakia could have no relations with the Holy See in Rome.
From the 9th century, the territory of Slovakia was under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Passau. In 870, Pope Adrian II assigned the reconstituted Archdiocese of Sirmius (Sirmium) jurisdiction over all of Moravia and Pannonia under the leadership of St. Methodius. In 880, Pope John VIII established the Moravian metropolitan see (Moravensis), likely seated at Velehrad; other proposed locations include Nitra, Devín, Esztergom (Strigonia), and Vyšehrad. At the same time, the Diocese of Nitra was founded, and permission was granted to establish another diocese.
Around the year 1000, King St. Stephen, for his Kingdom of Hungary, established the metropolitan see of Strigonia (whose territory extended almost entirely into present-day Slovakia) and ten dioceses. In Slovakia, only the Diocese of Nitra and part of the Diocese of Eger (Agria) were located. It was not until the 17th century that Cardinal Pázmány began to consider dividing the dioceses and establishing new ones. Thus, in 1771, the Greek Catholic Diocese of Mukachevo was founded, encompassing all Eastern Catholics in Slovakia. In 1776, three new dioceses were carved out of the Archdiocese of Strigonia: Neosolium (Banská Bystrica), Scepusium (Spiš), and Rožňava (Rosnavia). In 1804, the Diocese of Košice was separated from Eger, and in 1818, the Greek Catholic Diocese of Prešov was detached from Mukachevo (so that, until 1918, the metropolitan see of Strigonia had as suffragans Neosolium, Nitra, Mukachevo, and Prešov, in addition to dioceses in Hungary; the see of Eger had as suffragans Košice, Rožňava, Spiš, and Satu Mare).
After 1918, both archiepiscopal sees remained outside Slovakia. For the Strigonia portion, the Apostolic Administration of Trnava was established in 1922. Similarly, in 1922, the Premonstratensian Abbey of Jasov was elevated to an *abbatia nullius*, though this was never implemented.
In the 1928 *modus vivendi*, the Holy See committed to redrawing diocesan boundaries within the Czechoslovak state and establishing two new archiepiscopal sees: one of the Latin rite in Slovakia and one of the Slavonic Byzantine rite in Subcarpathian Ruthenia, encompassing the Greek Catholics of Slovakia. However, these archbishoprics were never erected. Instead, in 1937, the Holy See decreed that the dioceses, as redrawn according to the new borders, would be immediately subject to II.
Currently, Slovakia has five Latin dioceses: Košice (Cassovia), Banská Bystrica (Neosolium), Nitra, Rožňava (Rosnavia), and Spiš (Scepusium); the Greek Catholic Diocese of Prešov for the Ruthenians; and three apostolic administrations (Trnava, Satu Mare—attached to Košice—and Mukachevo, attached to Prešov).
In 1950 the Greek-Catholic diocese of Prešov was violently destroyed and occupied by schismatics. In the territory of the Apostolic Administration of Mukačevo there arose the new schismatic diocese of Michalovce.
IV. SLOVAK LITERATURE: V. CZECHOSLOVAKIA.
V. SACRED ART
The oldest sacred monument in Slovakia is the little church in Nitra Castle, consecrated in 833. It is still debated whether its present structure dates from the 9th or the 12th century (Hodál-Mencl). Of Romanesque art only a few examples remain: the rotunda of Skalica (12th century), the Benedictine churches at Deákovec (1228), Biňa (1217) and Jánošovce. The Romanesque cathedral of Spiš (Spišská Kapitula) preserves only the western part with the façade. In the villages some churches and feudal manor-houses survive: Dražovce, Pominovce, Klíž-Hradisko, etc.Gothic art, on the other hand, is widely represented, especially in centres once inhabited by Germans: the cathedrals of Košice, Bratislava and Trnava, the churches of Levoča, St Nicholas in Prešov (16th century), St Aegidius in Bardejov (15th century). Jewels of Gothic art are the two family chapels of the Zapolský at Spišská Kapitula and Spišský Štvrtok (15th century), and in Bratislava the towers of the Franciscans (14th century) and the Clarisses (16th century). In the Spiš region there developed a type of two-aisled Gothic church with a row of columns in the centre: Lubica, Veľká, etc. From the Gothic period numerous wooden altars and their predellas survive in the churches. The principal Gothic artist was Master Paul of Levoča, whose most important work is the high altar of St James in Levoča (1518).
Even more widespread is Baroque art; it is noteworthy that only exceptionally is the central nave of churches covered by a dome (Holy Trinity in Bratislava, the seminary chapel in Trnava); churches generally have a longitudinal layout, with imposing two-tower façades and characteristic spires. The most important Baroque monuments are: the church of the University of Trnava (1640), the cathedral of Banská Bystrica, the former Jesuit church in Trenčín, Košice, the Pauline church in Šaštín, the Franciscan church in Prešov and the Premonstratensian church in Jasov. The Gothic church of Nové Mesto nad Váhom was decorated in the Rococo style. Neoclassical style in the 19th century was used almost exclusively by Protestants (Košice, Levoča, Banská Bystrica). Modern art is still little developed. The most significant examples are: the church in Bratislava-Petržalka and Santa Maria della Pace in Košice.
A native art appears in the construction of some wooden churches, especially among the Eastern Catholics in the Carpathians. The wooden church generally consists of three central spaces: the sanctuary (separated from the people by an iconostasis), the space for the people, and the space under the tower. Almost always above all three spaces characteristic eastern spires rise.
VI. THE SLOVAKS IN AMERICA
From 1880 about 700,000 Slovaks emigrated to the United States and Canada. They were poor, simple folk, but religious. Lost in the new world, they soon began to organise themselves and even before they had priests they built churches and formed parishes, later offering them to the bishop on condition that he provide the necessary clergy. Today the Slovaks have in the United States and Canada 290 parishes and about 700 priests. At Cleveland, Ohio, there exists the Florentine Benedictine abbey of St Andrew Svorad, founded in 1922. In 1951 a convent of Slovak Benedictine nuns was also opened in Chicago. There also exists an indigenous congregation of Slovak religious: the Sisters of SS Cyril and Methodius, with their mother-house at Danville, Pa. The father of Slovak emigrants, the priest Štefan Furdék, founded in 1890 the association “Katolícka Jednota,” which numbers about 170,000 members.V. see: CZECHOSLOVAKIA.
VII. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM
The particular national circumstances have had a great influence also on the school system. From the Middle Ages Slovakia was drawn into the orbit of Hungarian cultural influence, and in the 19th century, with progressive Magyarisation, the Slovak school had to succumb to II. In 1875 the last secondary schools (3 gymnasia) were suppressed, and in 1907, with the Apponyi law, even the elementary schools were Magyarised. Thus after the First World War the reborn Slovakia had no schools in its national language. All school education therefore had to be rebuilt from the beginning. This radical change took place with great speed, leaving to the minorities schools in their own language. The elementary schools were state and private. The great majority belonged to the Catholic Church. The secondary schools – the gymnasia – after the First World War were almost all taken over by the State, but slowly the Church succeeded in reclaiming some of them. Thus, during the Slovak Republic out of 53 secondary schools, 17 belonged to the Church. All Catholic schools were subsidised by the State in the brief period of the Slovak Republic (law of 1940). In 1919 the Comenius University was founded in Bratislava, later called the Slovak University. From 1936 the theological faculty was also attached to II. After the Second World War, from 1945, with the advent of the communist regime the school system was much changed; all private schools were suppressed and the State claimed a monopoly over them. All schools are free. Education is divided according to the Soviet pattern into three levels: 1) first level: elementary school lasting 5 years; 2) second level: middle school lasting 4 years; and these two levels are compulsory for all; 3) third level (lyceum) lasting 4 years, and the related vocational schools; 4) followed by the university.Since 1945 alongside the University of Bratislava a university has been founded at Košice. In 1949 all minor seminaries were also suppressed and in 1950 the major ones as well. In their place the (communist) State has opened a central seminary at Bratislava, however without agreement with the ecclesiastical authority. The school in the communist system is a powerful means for the propaganda of Marxist ideology in Slovakia. – See plates XLIX-L.