CANADÀ

Subsections:

I. Geography

II. Civil history

III. Religious history

IV. Religious statistics

V. Art

VI. Literature

VII. School system.

I. Geography

Originally (16th century) the name referred only to the French-settled lands along the St Lawrence, held by France until 1763 (Treaty of Paris); today it designates the whole of North America north of the 49th parallel and the five Great Lakes, with the sole exception of Alaska.

This vast territory, almost as large as all Europe, embraces regions that differ greatly in terrain, climate, and landscape, yet remain immense. The western part, traversed by the Rocky Mountains and the Coastal Ranges, is high, rugged, and climatically varied according to altitude; it remains essentially a forested land. In contrast stand the central regions, represented by the great interior plains, with a markedly continental climate favorable to cultivation. To the southeast lies the St Lawrence basin, a lacustrine sector (where Canada reaches its lowest latitude) and the Atlantic territories, where the continental mass breaks into peninsulas and islands and where European colonization began. A distinct zone is the narrow Pacific coastal fringe, with its rich island belt, characterized by a maritime climate similar to that of the British Isles. The remainder, including the vast belt of ice-covered lands encircling the polar basin, is almost entirely uninhabited—not so much for its limited economic value as for its climatic conditions.

The vegetation, reduced in the far north to tundra, gives way farther south to a forest that stretches from the Pacific to the Atlantic over roughly one-quarter of Canada (at least 330 million hectares, an area more than ten times that of Italy) and constitutes one of the country’s greatest resources. Still farther south, in the drier interior zone, the forest yields to the prairie, an extraordinarily fertile region now transformed into a magnificent grain-growing and livestock-raising area. Other notable resources include fishing (even in inland waters; 160,000 people are employed in it), fur-bearing animals (for which Canada enjoys a world lead; hunting, now in decline, has been supplemented by fur-farming), and, above all, mineral wealth—varied, abundant, and widely distributed. Canada ranks first among world producers of nickel, platinum, and asbestos; gold, silver, cobalt, copper, radium, and uranium are also extracted. Although oil production is modest, substantial reserves of coal and iron exist, along with vast hydroelectric potential. It is no wonder that, in the last century, Canada has seen rapid industrial development; though still young, its industries (especially lumber, food processing, and chemicals) have already attained enviable prosperity. Alongside, and perhaps even more than, agricultural output, industrial production now makes Canada one of the richest regions in the world. Economic expansion has been aided not only by abundant space but also by Canada’s magnificent natural waterways, roads, canals, and railways (including transcontinental lines), as well as by the ease of maritime communication afforded by its two ocean fronts.

The population, concentrated—as in earlier times—especially in the southeastern provinces (St Lawrence basin and Atlantic region), is spreading into the central districts between Lake Winnipeg and the Rockies, where recent agricultural settlement is expanding. In the last fifty years the population has more than doubled (from about 400,000 at the beginning of the 19th century to roughly five million at its start); nonetheless, with 13 million inhabitants in 1947, it still barely exceeds that of New York City alone. Of this total, only 126,000—Indians and Eskimos—represent the original inhabitants of the continent; 5.5 million descend from French settlers along the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes; 6.1 million are of British origin, having grown especially in the 19th century; the remainder are immigrants of various nationalities, led by Europeans from central and eastern Europe (in 1941, citizens of Italian origin were estimated at 112,625). More than half of this population lives in urban centers: one city (Montreal) now exceeds one million; one (Toronto) is close behind; and six others have populations over 100,000 (Winnipeg, Vancouver, Hamilton, Ottawa, Quebec, Windsor).

Canada is a federation of nine provinces and two territories, established in 1867 and recognized in 1926 as a Dominion within the British Commonwealth. By agreement on 11 December 1948, the island of Newfoundland (which had been a separate Dominion, with Labrador under its jurisdiction since 1927) became a new province of the Canadian Dominion. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Parliament (a Senate of 102 life members appointed by the government and a House of Commons of 252 members elected for five years by direct universal suffrage), while the Crown’s executive authority is exercised through a Governor General and a cabinet. Each province, moreover, has its own parliamentary government for local affairs.

| Province / Territory | Area (sq km) | Population (1941 census) | Density (per sq km) | Capital (population in thousands, 1941) |
|----------------------|--------------|--------------------------|---------------------|------------------------------------------|
| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

Canada — The midnight sun in the Mackenzie. Position of the sun from 23:00 to 24:40 (at 50-minute intervals). Photograph taken north of Aklavik, Arctic Circle, by Sister Lénnie Ferland, general secretary of the Grey Nuns of Montreal.

France, which had founded itself on the Mississippi in 1699, whose western part had already been ceded to Spain in 1762 by secret convention. By the same treaty, France lost two other possessions in the Atlantic: the islands of Newfoundland and Cape Breton; of all New France, it retained only the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon.

2. Under the British regime (1763)

From that time, the new English colony, estimated at 80,000 inhabitants, passed under an absolute regime. Moreover, a royal proclamation of 7 October 1763 endangered the nationality of the conquered country by replacing French laws with English ones and practically excluding Catholics from public office by imposing the oath of the "Test". Fortunately, British authorities gradually mitigated their intolerance. The Quebec Act of 1774 restored French laws and dispensed with the oath of the "Test". On the other hand, the American Revolution (1774), which led to the declaration of independence of the United States (1776) and to the emigration to Canada of the monarchists of this new republic (about 15,000 settled in the province of Quebec and mainly in that of Ontario between 1782 and 1785), as well as the unpopularity of the Legislative Council and the discontent of the Canadians with the Quebec Act, which had established it, led in 1791 to the creation of two constitutional governments, one for the province of Lower Canada and of Quebec (French), the other for that of Upper Canada or Ontario (English), each consisting of a governor, an elective Chamber and a Council appointed for life. Meanwhile, in order to suppress the Franco-Canadian nationality, the British Parliament decided, under pressure from fanatics and interested parties both in Canada and in England, to unite the two provinces under a single governor. On 23 July 1840 it passed the Bill of Union, which established a single government composed of a governor, an Executive Council (chosen by the Crown), a Legislative Council first for life and then, from 1853, elective, and an elective Assembly. However, the Bill failed in its anti-national aim because the politicians of Quebec joined the reformers (liberals) of Ontario in demanding a responsible government, which they in fact obtained in 1849. From then on, the other English colonies in North America, which were also struggling for political independence, aimed at union with Canada. Thus two of the Maritime provinces, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, decided to form a federation with the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario. London approved this federal pact, and on 1 July 1867 the four provinces were solemnly erected into a confederation under the official name of the Dominion of Canada with Ottawa as its capital. Subsequently, the federal government purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company the Northwest Territories, where, in 1870, it created the autonomous province of Manitoba. In 1871 British Columbia, a province on the Pacific coast, joined the federation, soon followed, in 1873, by Prince Edward Island. Following this, in 1880, England believed the time had come to annex to Canada all the possessions in North America with the exception of Newfoundland. From these new annexations arose in 1905 the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, then, in 1912, the organized territories of Yukon and the three unorganized districts of the Northwest Territories: Mackenzie, Franklin and Keewatin. In 1948, Newfoundland voted to join Canada.

III. Religious history

3. The antecedents (1534–1650)

Anthony and William the Breton, who are believed to have been secular priests and chaplains to Jacques Cartier in 1535–36, are the first two known ministers of worship in the history of Canadian Christianity. Their immediate successors appeared in another part of New France, in Acadia, only in 1605; at the time of the founding of Port-Royal, where the abbé Nicolas Aubray (d. 1605) was succeeded in 1610 by Jacques Fléché (d. 1611), and then by the Jesuits Ennemond Massé and Pierre Biard, who, in 1613, left that house to found the missionary station of St. Saviour on the Isle of the Desert Mountains. Unfortunately, its destruction and that of Port-Royal, which occurred the same year, deprived Acadia of priests, as it was already without churches.

4. The mission (1615–18) and the apostolic vicariate (1658–74)

Fortunately, Quebec, founded (1608) in the heart of Canada, offered more security and stability. Thus in 1615, at the request of the founder Champlain, four Franciscans from the province of Paris were sent there by the Pope: Frs. Denis Jamet, superior, Joseph Le Caron, Jean Dolbeau and the friar Pacifique Duplessis. From then on, thanks to the zeal of these pioneers and that of the Jesuits, who were called to their aid in 1625, Catholicism was able to establish itself in Canada. In 1629 the conquest of Quebec by the English forced the missionaries to leave the mission.

In 1632, the year of the restitution of Canada to France, the Company of One Hundred Associates, which administered the colony, allowed only the Jesuits to return, but the Franciscans continued in Acadia, under the governorship of Lieutenant La Tour, the ministry they had begun in 1619, while Father Joseph du Tremblay, the famous "Grey Eminence," entrusted his confreres

Capuchins, at the request of his protégé Lieutenant De Razilly, undertook the mission of Port-Royal. Thus, with the continuous increase of colonists and missionaries, the mission in Canada gained new strength. In 1635, the Jesuit college was founded in Québec, the first of its kind in North America; in 1639, the first religious women arrived—the Augustinians of Dieppe for the care of hospitals and the Ursulines of Tours for the education of youth. In Montréal (Villemarie), founded in 1642 by Maisonneuve, the Institute of the Sisters of Our Lady was established in 1653 by the Venerable Marguerite Bourgeoys (q.v.); in 1657, a community of nursing sisters, the Hospitallers of the Hôtel-Dieu, was added, and in the same year, the Sulpicians took charge of the spiritual direction of the new city. Meanwhile, missions among the Indians progressed, watered by the blood of the martyrs Jogues, Brébeuf, and their companions.

The year 1658 marked a new stage for the Church in Canada. On 1 April, a decree of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith erected all of New France into an apostolic vicariate, and on 3 June, a brief of Alexander VII appointed as its first titular, with the episcopal title of Petra, the Venerable François de Montmorency-Laval (q.v.). The arrival of the Sulpicians in Montréal and the founding of the seminary in Québec in 1663 were the first religious events of this period, which culminated in the return of the Franciscans in 1670.

5. The Diocese (1674–1819)

In 1664, the king had requested the erection of the Diocese of Québec, but it was only in 1670 that this was decided by a decree of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith and carried out by a papal bull of 1 October 1674. The diocese, of which Monsignor Laval, who died in 1708, became the first bishop, encompassed all of New France, that is, all the French possessions in North America. From then on, thanks to royal support and the tithes paid by the faithful, parishes increased, and the life of the Canadian Church took on a more regular development. The cession of New France to England (1763) slowed this progress. Indeed, while the peace treaty guaranteed full liberty to the Catholic Church, it left room for Protestant fanaticism through a clause subordinating such exercise to compatibility with English law. Moreover, Canada had already lost its bishop, Monsignor Henri du Breil de Pontbriand, three years earlier (June 1760). Nevertheless, although the English government did not then recognize the hierarchy organized by Rome, the Canadian clergy, relying on the religious freedom guaranteed by the treaty, insisted on securing a successor to Monsignor Pontbriand. After lengthy negotiations, the British government intimated to the candidate, Abbé J. O’Briand, who had gone to London to settle the matter, that they would turn a blind eye, provided his consecration took place outside Canada and he did not assume the title of Bishop of Québec in the exercise of his episcopal ministry. Thus, after his papal appointment, Monsignor Briand was consecrated in France on 16 March 1766, and to ensure continuity in the Canadian episcopate, he obtained from Clement XIII, on 13 April 1766, with the approval of the British authorities, the faculty to appoint an auxiliary with the right of succession. He then entered the country, where the governor received him as superintendent of the Roman Church.

Despite this official return to full religious freedom, high-ranking fanatical officials, and especially the Anglican bishop of Québec, whose see had been erected in 1793 and who claimed, by virtue of Anglican law, the right to govern the entire Canadian Church, did not fail to create numerous obstacles. Yet the skill and prudence of Monsignor Plessis (11th Bishop of Québec, 1806–25) triumphed, securing official recognition of his title and steering the Canadian Church toward full hierarchical organization.

6. The Archdiocese and Ecclesiastical Provinces from 1819 to the Present Day

On 30 May 1817, the apostolic vicariate of Nova Scotia (ancient Acadia) was erected; on 12 January 1819, Québec was elevated to an archdiocese and

tdU. Soucy Mondoux, *L'Hôtel-Dieu, premier hôpital de Montréal* (1812, Montréal 1818, p. 811)

Ecclesiastical vicariates were erected in Upper Canada (Kingston) and Prince Edward Island, followed in 1820 by those of Montréal and the North-West District, St Boniface. Yet prudently, only after Québec was raised to a proper ecclesiastical province (12 July 1844), did the archbishops of that city begin publicly to bear their title. From then on, to the six suffragan dioceses of Québec—Kingston (1826), Charlottetown (1829), Montréal (1836), Toronto (1841), Saint John and Halifax (1842)—were added those of St Boniface and Arichat (1844), Ottawa (1847), and others, which soon formed new ecclesiastical provinces: Halifax (1852), Toronto and St Boniface (1870). Thus in 1909 the first Plenary Council of Québec could be held.

Thanks to the fecundity of French-Canadian families and to the immigration of Irish, Italian, German and other coreligionists, and to the arrival of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate in 1841, the return of the Jesuits in 1842 and of the Franciscans in 1890 (whose communities had died out in Canada under Anglican laws forbidding the reception of new members), and thanks also to the rise of religious congregations, parish schools, colleges and seminaries, and to the zeal of the Canadian clergy, the Catholic Church gained strength and spread into every province and territory of the Confederation. In 1886 Québec had a cardinal, and an Apostolic Delegation was established at Ottawa in 1899. Finally in 1908, the Church in Canada, now fully organised, passed from the jurisdiction of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith to that of the Congregation of the Consistory. Eight Apostolic Vicariates remain under the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith: Hudson Bay, James Bay, Gravelbourg, Keewatin, Labrador, Mackenzie, Prince Rupert, Whitehorse.

IV. Religious statistics

1. Catholic Church – In 1947, out of a population of 12,582,000, there were 5,032,800 Catholics (about 70% French-Canadian, 12% Irish, 28.5% German, 2.4% Italian, 1.4% Indian and Eskimo). At the beginning of 1949 the ecclesiastical organisation was as follows: 13 archdioceses, 12 metropolitan sees and one immediately subject to the Holy See; 33 dioceses and 8 Apostolic Vicariates, plus an abbazia nullius and Apostolic Exarchates for Byzantine-rite Ruthenian faithful, divided thus: Central Canada (Winnipeg), Eastern Canada (Toronto), Western Canada (Edmonton). Eastern-rite faithful number over 300,000. The Apostolic Delegate resides at Ottawa. Five Catholic universities recognised by the State (of which Laval University in Québec is the oldest, 1854) provide higher education, to which more than 50 classical colleges and minor seminaries prepare young men under the direction of secular and regular clergy. Every parish has its primary school supported by the faithful. In 1931, 10,309 priests, of whom 3,689 regulars, exercised the sacred ministry in 4,335 parishes and mission stations, not counting 300 Canadian missionaries in the Holy Land, Africa, India, China, Japan and the Antilles. In 1937 there were 220 religious communities in Canada, 140 of them female, with a total membership of over 40,000.

7. Protestant sects

Under French rule Protestantism could not establish itself in Canada, since the king forbade its activity in order to protect the Catholic religion, which was that of the State. But with the advent of British rule and the large immigration of American loyalists, Protestantism penetrated especially into Ontario and the Maritime Provinces, giving rise to the creation of an Anglican see at Québec in 1793. Today Canadian Protestantism is divided into more than 77 sects, the largest of which in 1941 were the United Church (2,204,875), Anglican (1,751,188), Presbyterian (829,147), Baptist (483,599) and Lutheran (401,153). There are also 139,629 Greek schismatics.

(1613-59). Evreux 1909; id., L'Église du Canada depuis Mgr de Laval jusqu'à la conquête, 5 vols., Québec 1911-14; O. Jouve, Les Franciscains et le Canada: l'établissement de la foi, 1615-10, ibid. 1915; A. Gosselin, L'Église du Canada après la conquête, ibid. 1916-17; A. J. Morice, Histoire de l'Église catholique dans l'Ouest canadien, 2nd ed., S. Bonifacio 1921-23; H. A. Scott, Au berceau de notre histoire, in Mémoires de la Société Royale du Canada, 3rd ser., 1922, 3rd sec., pp. 39-74; C. de Nant, Pages glorieuses de l'épopée canadienne: une mission capucine en Acadie, Montréal 1927; R. Corrigan, Die Kongregation de Propaganda Fide und ihre Tätigkeit in Nord-Amerika im 17. Jahrhundert, München 1928; S. J. Case, A bibliographical guide to the history of Christianity, Chicago 1931, pp. 170-72; I. Caron, La nomination des évêques catholiques de Québec sous le régime anglais, Ottawa 1932; A. G. Doughty, Sources for the history of the Catholic Church in the Public Archives of Canada, in Catholic Historical Review, 19 (1933-34), pp. 148-66; G. Goyau, Les origines religieuses du Canada, 3rd ed., Paris 1934; H. Lemay, The Friar Minor in French and British North America, in The Franciscan Educational Conference, 17 (1936), pp. 151-82. — Statistics: Dénominations religieuses par origines raciales [1931], Ottawa 1933; C. Gautier, Le catholicisme au Canada, analyse des statistiques du recensement de 1931, ibid. 1934; A. De Barbarzena, L'Église catholique au Canada: précis historique et statistique, 4th ed., Montréal 1934; Huitième recensement du Canada, Ottawa 1941; Le Canada ecclésiastique, 63 (Montréal 1949); Annuario Pontificio, Città del Vaticano 1949.

Corrado Morin

V. Arte — Constituted as a nation only in recent times, Canada does not possess an ancient artistic tradition; moreover, its political and geographical conditions have not allowed it to develop an independent profile in the international artistic panorama. Bordering on the United States of America and being a British dominion, it has expressed in its artistic forms a close dependence on the two English and American civilizations.

Of painting, prior to the independence of the French dominion, there are some traces in the religious productions for churches and convents in the most populous centres, derived for the most part from those imported by French missionaries and repeated in popular styles of no great significance. There were a few other indigenous manifestations, with references to Indian iconography, and the first notable painter of this trend was the Irish immigrant Paul Kane (1810-71), whose works remain in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto. Interest soon turned, however, to European works of art, of which there were excellent examples—Italian, French, Flemish, and English—in the collection of Laval University, assembled by Joseph Legaré, who was also a good painter, during the French Revolution and on his travels in Europe. Towards the end of the 19th century, the first artistic societies were formed in Canada, the most important of which, Mont-Art (1882), still exists today. Thus began the first exchanges of artists, and alongside the immigration of many Europeans—among them the Prussian Jacobi, the Englishman Fowler, the Frenchman Berthon, and the Dutchman Krieghoff—there was a corresponding emigration of Canadian artists to Europe, especially to Paris and London. Among the interesting consequences of this was the formation around 1920 of the “Group of Seven,” comprising the young artists Harris, Jackson, Lismer, Johnston, Macdonald, Horsman Varley, and Carmichael, who sought to express in contemporary language the vast wild landscapes of Ontario that had already inspired Tom Thomson, the singer of Canadian nature.

Sculpture, unlike painting, had a more genuine character in the statues for worship and the first popular manifestations of sacred art. Yet even for sculpture, one must wait until the early 19th century to find an eminent artist. Such was Philippe Hébert, who carved the statue of Samuel de Champlain in Québec and that of Maisonneuve in Montréal. Another sculptor of commemorative works was W. S. Allward, whose works include the Canadian war memorial at Vimy (France) and the Bell monument at Brantford. Among others, A. Phimister Proctor, born in Bosanquet, Ontario, distinguished himself and was highly esteemed in the United States. He created the two lions in front of the Public Library on Fifth Avenue in New York, as well as other sculptures in the same city and in the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa, which, together with the Art Gallery of Toronto and that of Montréal, constitutes the public artistic heritage of Canada.

Canadian architecture may be said to have begun in earnest with the Canadian Academy of Arts

CANADA — CANADA-AMERICAN MARTYRS
(1880)

which comprised a group of nine architects. Prior to this, there were only brief, more functional than artistic, attempts, resulting in buildings in which originality is to be found rather in adaptations to the particular climatic conditions. Generally utilitarian in character, private architecture produced no significant episodes. More noteworthy are some public buildings in the major cities, where a succession of easily imported fashions produced neoclassical, Georgian, and Victorian Gothic styles in turn. At the beginning of the 20th century, American influence took over, from which only a few maritime and inland locations sporadically escaped, e.g., Halifax, which preserves indigenous traditional features in the Provincial Building, and Montréal and Toronto.

Giovanni Carandente

VI. LITERATURE

While the United States now has a clearly defined literature, the same cannot be said of Canada, even though this vast country, which is at least partly bilingual, presents certain characteristics that give its literary production in both English and French a position of its own.

The nature and human environment of Canada are reflected in the lyric poetry of Isabella Valency Crawford (not without dialectal touches) and especially in that of Archibald Lampman (1861–1914). Among prose writers, Thomas Chandler Haliburton, creator of the typical character Sam Slick the Clockmaker, and William Kirby (1817–1906), author of a historical novel entitled *Le Chien d’Or; or, The Golden Dog*, deserve special mention.

In the field of French-Canadian literature, certain historical works and relations by Jesuits stand out, including the *Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle France* by Fr. Charlevoix. A true poetic production in French Canada begins with O. Crémazie (1827–79); also worthy of note are L. Fréchette (1839–1908), who in *La Légende d’un peuple* sang the epic deeds of his land, and among prose writers, J. Marmette, H. R. Casgrain, and especially J. P. Tardivel (1851–1905).

Echoes of 19th-century English poetry (Browning, Shelley) and distinctly local themes are also found in more recent poetry. Among modern writers, W. W. Campbell, W. C. Bliss, and Ch. G. D. Roberts are notable. Adventure narrators include W. Wallace and Ch. V. GORGONE. English- and French-language writers have, over time, been influenced by the evolution of their respective literatures. Among modern French-language writers, A. Lozeau, E. Nelligan, A. Dreux, P. Morin, and A. Desilet have established themselves.

See also: INGHILTERRA (letteratura).

VII. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Since 1943, the Canadian school system has increasingly taken on a national character, which is reinforced not only by pedagogical regionalism in the individual provinces—each of which enjoys broad freedom in its curriculum, including practical instruction in domestic economy, hygiene, sewing, and agriculture—but chiefly by the inclusion of Canadian history in school programs as of 1943. Compulsory physical education at all levels of schooling is another indicator of this national spirit. However, the Canadian school system lacks stability due to the aforementioned regionalism, and there are significant differences in the educational and cultural backgrounds of children and students. There is a perceived need to establish a Ministry of Education, which for the time being is somewhat replaced by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. This body seeks at least to promote a flexible standardization of education and keeps the provinces informed through its *Annual Survey of Education in Canada*.

In the individual provinces—Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, and Saskatchewan—schools are inspected by special supervisory boards or school trustees. In the province of Quebec, oversight is exercised by a Superintendent of Public Instruction, assisted by a council of 35 members divided into two groups—one Catholic and one Protestant—corresponding to the two religious denominations of the province. In all provinces, parents are free to establish minority schools if they do not wish to send their children to schools of the local majority denomination. School attendance is compulsory from ages 8 to 14. Religion, despite the confessional nature of the schools, is a matter of personal choice; the Catholic curriculum includes the catechism, while in Protestant schools it is the Bible.

The Canadian school system is divided into English-language and French-language schools, as the French-speaking population is guaranteed under the "Royal Proclamation" of 1763, among other rights, the establishment of schools in their mother tongue. Schools are divided into elementary schools (compulsory), lasting 7 or 8 years, followed by high schools. Secondary education offers a wide variety of programs. Higher education is provided by 20 universities, six of which are state-controlled. — See Pl. XXXVII.

CANADO-AMERICAN MARTYRS. — This group consists of eight Jesuit martyrs, six priests and two

Fratelli coadiutori, missionaries among the Red Indians of the Huron tribe in Canada, martyred by the Iroquois Red Indians between 1642 and 1649. They were beatified and canonized by Pius XI on 21 June 1925 and 29 June 1930 respectively.

I. ST JEAN DE BRÉBEUF, b. at Condé-sur-Vire (Normandy) on 25 March 1593; from 1625 in Canada among the Algonquins and later among the Hurons on the shores of the lake of the same name. Having returned to Quebec, he fell prisoner to English pirates and was taken to England. After the peace between France and England, he was able to depart again for the mission in 1633, where with Fr G. Lallement he founded many stations among the Hurons, which promised a fine flowering. But the new war between the two nations also sparked a fratricidal struggle between Christian Hurons and pagan Iroquois, which led to the extermination of the former and the total ruin of the mission. Fr Brébeuf was cruelly martyred in the village of St Louis on 16 March 1649.

II. ST GABRIEL LALLEMANT, b. in Paris on 10 Oct 1610. In Canada from 1646, after remaining two years at Quebec he had only just arrived at the station of Fr Brébeuf when he was taken with him by the Iroquois and, even more cruelly, martyred with him, dying on 17 March.

III. ST ISAAC JOGUES, b. at Orléans on 10 Jan 1607. In Canada from 1636. During a journey to Quebec (1642) he was captured by the Iroquois together with his entire caravan, composed of Hurons and the coadjutor Brother R. Goupil. He was led in derision through various villages and tortured, but managed to escape and reach France. Two years later he was back at his former field of work (1644). But the Iroquois, for whom he had pleaded for peace at Quebec, turned against him and martyred him in the village of Ossernenon (today Auriesville in the United States, where a sanctuary stands in his honour, and those of St René Goupil and St J. de la Lande) on 18 Oct 1646.

IV. ST ANTOINE DANIEL, b. at Dieppe on 27 May 1598; from 1633 in Canada, where he laboured greatly among the Hurons. Attacked in the village of Ihonatria by a band of Iroquois, he was killed by arrows and axes and his body cast into the flames of his burning chapel (4 July 1648).

V. ST NOËL CHABANEL, b. at Mende (southern France) on 2 Feb 1616; in Canada among the Algonquins and Hurons with Fr C. Garnier; until 8 Dec 1649 he was treacherously killed by an apostate Huron. The great difficulty of learning Indian dialects and adapting to that life among savages, so repugnant to his nature, led him to make the heroic vow never to leave that mission of his own accord.

VI. ST CHARLES GARNIER, b. in Paris on 28 May 1606; in Canada from 1636, where he laboured fruitfully among the Tobacco tribe. He was martyred during the fratricidal struggle between Hurons and Iroquois in the village of St John on 7 Dec 1649.

VII. ST RENÉ GOUPIL, b. at Angers in 1607. Coadjutor brother; accompanying Fr Jogues on the journey to Quebec (1642), he too was seized and tortured by the Iroquois, and then killed by one of them in the village of Ossernenon for being caught tracing a cross on the forehead of a child (29 Sept 1642).

VIII. ST JEAN DE LA LANDE, b. at Dieppe. Nothing more is known except that, accompanying as an Oblate Fr Jogues on his second journey among the Iroquois (1646), he was captured with him and killed by a blow from an axe on 19 Oct 1646.

Feast: the Canadian group: de Brébeuf, Lallement, Daniel, Garnier, Chabanel, 16 March; the American group: Jogues, Goupil, de la Lande, 18 Oct.

Celestino Testore

CANAL, JOSÉ DE LA. — Augustinian historian, b. at Ucieda (Santander) on 11 Jan 1768 and d. in Madrid on 17 Apr 1845. He first taught philosophy and then theology at Burgos, Salamanca and Toledo; in 1804 he was transferred to Madrid to continue the España Sagrada, of which he published, with his confrere Merino, vols. XLIII and XLIV (Madrid 1819 and 1826), and alone vols. XLV and XLVI (ibid. 1832 and 1836), leaving vol. XLVI unfinished, later published by Sainz de Baranda (ibid. 1850). He also wrote devotional books and translated others from French. He declined the bishopric of Gerona three times and died as president of the Academy of History.

CANALE, BARTOLOMEO, Venerable. — Milanese Barnabite, b. in 1605, d. in 1681. Educated by the Jesuits of Brera, he entered the Barnabites at the age of 22 and distinguished himself for his piety and austerity of life. For about 28 years he resided in Monza. The principal field of his activity was the care of souls. He also held positions of trust in the Order. He was highly esteemed for his holiness and for the extraordinary gifts with which he was favoured. On 26 July 1948 the decree on the heroic nature of his virtues was published. He is buried in the church of the Carrobiolo in Monza.

He published two important ascetical works, the fruit of his meditations and experiences: Diario spirituale, ovvero meditazioni per tutti i giorni dell'anno, diviso in tre parti, utile a Religiosi claustrali e a chiunque desidera vivere secondo lo spirito ecc. (Milan 1670; 11th ed., Monza 1909); La verità scoperta al christiano intorno alle cose presenti (Milan 1694, 4th ed. 1895).

Salvatore M. De Ruggiero

CANALE DI SUEZ, APOSTOLIC VICARIATE OF: V. EGITTO.

CANALI, BENEDETTO ANGELO MARIA. — Servite theologian, d. in 1745. He published a Cursus Philosophicus ad mentem Doctoris solemnis Henrici de Gandavo (Parma 1715; ibid. 1716) which encountered some difficulty because of certain anatomical descriptions.

He edited and completed the Disputationes theologicae, iuxta genuinam Henrici de Gandavo mentem (Rome 1698, Lucca 1722-24) of Lodigieri. He also supervised the edition of the work Doctrina catholica de septem Ecclesiae Sacramentis (Venice 1734) by Fr Castelli, Servite (d. 1715). Canali also wrote some historical studies concerning his Order.

Agostino Amaroli

CANALI, LUIGI DA PARMA. — Minister General of the Friars Minor and titular archbishop of Ptolemais, b.

Canary Islands – Ecclesiastical Circumscriptions.

ziata of Parma. After the religious province was reconstituted, he served as its first provincial minister from 1882 to 1889, and at the General Chapter held in Rome on 3 October 1889, he was elected Minister General of the Order. He inaugurated the College of St Anthony in Rome (1890) and visited many provinces, including the Holy Land. However, his greatest merit lay in preparing the reunion of the various branches of his Order, which was proclaimed and sanctioned by Leo XIII in the bull *Felicitate quadam* of 4 October 1897. He then retired to his own Province, which elected him minister again in 1900. The following year he was raised to the dignity of archbishop, and shortly afterward, on 14 September of the same year, he was informally notified by Rome of his appointment to the see of Reggio Emilia, which he immediately declined due to poor health and advanced age. In 1904 he served once more as apostolic visitor to the dioceses of Milan, Como, and Lodi. His noble character, affability, and prudence in governance had won him the esteem of all. Besides various discourses on studies, the Immaculate Conception, St Bonaventure, etc., and official encyclicals, he published a *Life of the Blessed John of Parma* (Quaracchi 1900) and *From Rome to Jerusalem* (Vanves near Paris 1894; French trans., ibid. 1894).

Livario Oliger

CANANEA. – The woman of Tyre, mentioned in Mt 15:21-28 as C., and in Mk 7:24-30 as a Syrophoenician, who begged and obtained from Jesus the deliverance of her daughter from the demon that tormented her, has rarely been represented in early Christian art.

Although few female figures have been as controversial as this one, variously identified with the haemorrhaging woman, the adulteress, Mary and Martha the sisters of Lazarus, the “great sinner,” etc., it may be considered highly probable that C. can be recognized only in the clearly defined figure of a woman who, standing and slightly bent forward, receives the Lord’s right hand, veiled, to kiss it in gratitude. Only Lazarus’s sister is shown in a similar posture in a limited number of sarcophagi, where any confusion with C. is ruled out by the Resurrection scene in which she appears. It therefore seems unlikely that the other female figures, kneeling with hands outstretched toward the Lord, can be identified with C., all the more so since in several cases they receive the imposition of hands from Christ.

According to known monuments, C. was never depicted in funerary frescoes; she does appear, however, in some sculptures from the second half of the 4th century. In other branches of paleo-Christian art, C. can scarcely be identified with the kneeling woman in the mosaic of St Apollinaris Nuovo in Ravenna; here it is more likely a question of the haemorrhaging woman or the “great sinner.”

Luciano De Bruyne

CANANEANS: V. CANAAN.

CANARY ISLANDS. – Archipelago of 14 islands (7 of them major), of volcanic origin, situated in the North Atlantic to the SW of the Moroccan coast. Altogether they cover 7,496 sq km, three-quarters of which are accounted for by the three largest islands: Tenerife (ten times the size of Elba), Fuerteventura, and Gran Canaria. They enjoy a subtropical-oceanic climate, with very mild winters (17° C average in January at Las Palmas) and scant rainfall; hence they are renowned as winter health resorts. The soil, extremely fertile, produces early vegetables, bananas, tobacco, grapes, olives, and citrus fruits. Their position makes the archipelago a maritime staging point on routes from Europe to West Africa or Latin America. One of the islands, El Hierro, was adopted (from 1634) as the prime meridian (20° W of Paris). Known since antiquity (*Jardines Fortunatorum*), they were rediscovered by Italians in the 13th century and occupied by the Spanish in 1512. Today they form two provinces of metropolitan Spain (and are therefore normally assigned to Europe): Las Palmas (named after the most populous city: 151,000 inhabitants) comprises Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote (4,053 sq km; 375,744 inhabitants in 1947); Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the other eleven (3,443 sq km with 401,283 inhabitants).

Giuseppe Caraci

Dioceses of the Canary Islands. – Erected on 7 July 1406, during the Western Schism, by the Avignon pope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), who decreed that the see should be at San Marcial de Rubicón on the island of Lanzarote. The first bishop was the Franciscan Alfonso of San Lucar de Barrameda. Among his successors were other Franciscans and Dominicans, as well as a Jeronymite and a Benedictine. Innocent VIII transferred the see to

Las Palmas, but this arrangement did not take effect until half a century later; since then the bishop has resided in this capital and has under his jurisdiction the islands of Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, Lobos, and Lanzarote. In 1819 the diocese was divided, and from the islands of Tenerife, La Gomera, El Hierro, and La Palma the diocese of Tenerife or San Cristóbal de La Laguna (q.v.) was established. It comprises 184 churches, 111 parishes, 135 diocesan priests and 43 regular clergy; the inhabitants number 340,215, mostly Catholics (1948). It is a suffragan of Seville and has as its patrons the Madonna of the Pine and St. Peter Martyr.

cancelleresca, scrittura - Diploma of Conrad III, 28 May 1139. St. Gall, Abbey Archive.

CANBERRA-GOULBURN, ARCHDIOCESE OF. - In Australia until 1948 the archdiocese of Canberra-Goulburn was simply a diocese with its see at Goulburn. It was erected on 28 November 1863 from territory detached from the archdiocese of Sydney and made a suffragan of the latter. On 10 May 1887 it underwent a boundary adjustment, and in 1917 part of its territory was used to erect the diocese of Wagga-Wagga, while it was assigned twelve parishes detached from the archdiocese of Sydney.

In 1948 the diocese was raised to the dignity of an archdiocese immediately subject to the Holy See, with its see at Canberra, the federal capital, and with the title of Canberra-Goulburn.

Its territory extends over 58,511 sq. km., with a Catholic population of 39,030 souls. It has 36 parishes, 147 churches, 87 diocesan priests, 19 religious priests, 33 brothers, and 421 sisters. In the primary schools 6,140 pupils are educated, and 1,550 in the secondary schools. There are 4 hospitals and various other charitable institutions (1948).

CANCELLERESCA, SCRITTURA. - In palaeography the term cancellaresca (chancery hand) designates the script proper to chancelleries, and in particular that used in imperial and papal diplomas. It does not constitute a script sui generis, but is rather an extreme modification, beyond the limits of natural evolution, of particular cursive and semi-cursive scripts that succeeded one another over the centuries. Nevertheless, certain specific characteristics—summarized in a solemn and elaborate ductus, with an excessive development of the strokes below and especially above the line, and with artificial ligatures—enable it to be distinguished as a particular type of script.

The earliest example is provided by two imperial rescripts of the 5th century from Egypt, both fragmentary, one preserved in the Museum of Antiquities at Leiden, the other in Paris (part in the Louvre, part in the National Library). The script is nothing other than a deformation of the minuscule cursive of the Roman period, with evident Greek chancery influences; the letters display a characteristic rightward inclination.