BISMARCK, Otto Eduard Leopold, von. - German statesman, called the Iron Chancellor, b. at Schönhausen on 1 April 1815, d. at Friedrichsruhe on 30 July 1898. He soon demonstrated a special aptitude for political life; in fact, he became a member of the Diet convened by Frederick William IV at a very young age; he was then ambassador to Paris and St. Petersburg. Appointed president of the Council in 1862, his policy was directed above all at asserting Prussian hegemony over the lesser German states, in opposition to Austria, which for its part, aiming to counter Prussia, had convened on 17 Aug. 1863 in Frankfurt a Diet of German princes to which a federal reform was to be submitted. But the abstention, on B.'s suggestion, of William I of Prussia, who had meanwhile succeeded his brother Frederick William IV, frustrated the designs of the Habsburgs.
This was B.'s first political success, since Austria's position was becoming ever more delicate, finding itself isolated from England and France and with Russia hostile. New disagreements arose again between Austria and Prussia following the victorious conclusion of the war against Denmark, waged jointly, over the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg, disagreements which, moreover, B. strove ever more to inflame, in order to arrive at a complete rupture. Having indeed secured the neutrality of France and concluded a formal alliance with Italy, a conflict ensued, which ended with the victory of Sadowa (2 July 1866) in favor of Prussia, whereby Austria found itself excluded from all influence in the German states, while Prussia proceeded to annex Hanover and the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, and on the other hand Italy obtained Venetia. These were the prodromes of the German empire founded and held by Prussia and completed shortly afterward with Prussia's victory over France (1871) and the consequent creation of the German Empire.
B.'s aggressive policy and the establishment of the German Empire harshly disturbed the policy of the moderates, who in the years 1870-71 had to see the Europeanist-liberal dream collapse, precisely because B.'s policy was the implementation of the pure spirit of conquest (cf. F. Chabod, Il pensiero europeo della Destra di fronte alla guerra franco-prussiana, in La Comunità internazionale, 1 [1946], p. 221 ff.). Even at the apogee of his successes B. was forced to overcome very grave difficulties, above all in the attempt to subjugate the Church and German Catholics to his designs. It was precisely in this way that there began that struggle, to which Virchow gave the tendentious name of Kulturkampf (struggle for civilization), and which B. conducted under the pretext of defending the rights of the State and of combating the political ultramontanism of the clergy, but which in fact by every means tended to detach German Catholicism from Rome, to subjugate it to the government, to make it an easy prey to Lutheran penetration, destroying, if possible, the flourishing social and party organizations of German Catholics. Begun in 1871 with the government's refusal to recognize the dogma of pontifical infallibility and in conjunction with other factors, this struggle was prolonged until 1887, reaching its climax with the so-called "May laws" of 1873-74-75, decidedly oppressive, whereby not a few bishops were imprisoned. But in the face of the resolute attitude maintained by Catholics, led by Windthorst and other energetic leaders, the dispute gradually resolved into a clear Catholic victory, until a reconciliation was reached. The May laws were re-examined, diplomatic relations with the Vatican resumed, and from B. himself, who had had occasion to recognize the grave political error into which he had fallen, arbitration was requested of Leo XIII in the question of the Caroline Islands (1887).
B.'s star then fatally declined; in fact, the accession to the throne of William II marked the end of his prestige and of his despotic authority, so that on 18 March 1890 he abandoned power, retiring to Friedrichsruhe, where he died.
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Niccolò Del Re