Vasa reaches 700,000 inhabitants. Subjected to Sweden for more than six centuries and united with Russia in 1809, the country proclaims itself a democratic and independent republic in 1917. In the last war it had to cede to the U.S.S.R. part of its richest territories; especially serious was the loss of the so-called Karelian Isthmus with the city of Viborg.
B
F. until the introduction of the Lutheran reformation. In this period two other prelates deserve special mention: Hemming (1338-66), who continued the work of organization begun by his predecessor and strengthened the position of
II. HISTORY
The evangelization of FINLAND began around the middle of the 12th century. Promoter of this was King ERIC IX the Saint of Sweden, who took the lead of a crusade; in FINLAND there remained Bishop HENRY of Uppsala (q.v.). The results of this enterprise, however, were not lasting. After the assassination of the bishop, the work of evangelization languished, as is demonstrated by a brief of ALEXANDER III (1171), in which the Pope urges the archbishop of Uppsala to take an interest in the spread of the word of Christ in FINLAND. It was only in the first decades of the following century that Catholicism regained strength, thanks to the indefatigable missionary activity of THOMAS, bishop of Finland, who, however, resigned from his bishopric in 1245 because the crusade he had led against the city of Novgorod had failed, its army, commanded by ALEXANDER NEVSKY, having defeated the crusaders on the banks of the Neva (1240).At the same time, Sweden, under the energetic leadership of the jarl BIRGER MAGNUSSON, who was the highest authority in the kingdom after the sovereign, launched a new crusade into FINLAND in 1249, which definitively bound western FINLAND to the Swedish state and to the Catholic faith; the foundation of the first convent, the Dominican one of Åbo, also dates to the same year. In 1286 the first canonically elected bishop, JOHANNES I, was installed; he transferred the episcopal see to Åbo, which until then had been established at Nossis and Räntämäki. The Peace of Nöteborg (1323) between Sweden and Novgorod, by which Swedish sovereignty over western Karelia was recognized, opened new prospects for the missionary activity of the Finnish Church, and during the episcopate of BENEDICTUS (1321-38) the solid foundations were laid upon which the Church of FINLAND would stand until the introduction of the Lutheran “Reformation.” During this period two other prelates deserve special mention: HERMING (1338-66), who continued the work of organization begun by his predecessor and strengthened the position of the Church in FINLAND, and ALAGNUS II TAVAST (1422-50), who is a figure of the greatest importance in the medieval ecclesiastical history of FINLAND.
In F., as in Sweden, the “reformation” was introduced by King Gustav I Vasa, who, finding the State in grave economic difficulties, sought to procure the financial means for continuing the war against Denmark (which aimed to reassert its dominion over Sweden and F.) by seizing ecclesiastical goods and confiscating tithes.
The centre for the spread of Protestant ideas in F. was the city of Viborg (Viipuri), where the leading representative of Finnish Lutheranism, Michael Agricola, also studied. Having enrolled at the University of Wittenberg in 1536, Agricola returned home after earning his doctorate and translated the New Testament and other sacred texts into Finnish. He also composed a book of prayers (*Rucouskiria Biblionata*), which may be regarded as a veritable manual for priests. The “reformation” finally took firm root in F. with the adoption of the Augsburg Confession at the Uppsala Synod (1593). Yet the position of F. remained uncertain. After the death of King John III (1570–92), a struggle began between Charles, Duke of Södermanland (brother of the deceased king), and Sigismund II Vasa, son of John III and King of Poland, who sought to restore Catholicism in Sweden. F. was then governed by Klas Fleming, a man devoted to the late King John III and to the new king, and he had no intention of taking sides with Charles. But Fleming died, Charles won the battle of Sigismund and became King of Sweden as Charles IX, forcing Sigismund to retreat to Poland. This outcome of the struggle proved of truly historic importance, for it definitively bound F. to the political destiny of Sweden and to the Lutheran faith. With the rise of Russian power, F. became Sweden’s bulwark against the east, a role it fulfilled for more than two centuries until the Peace of Fredrikshamn (1809), when F. entered the Swedish realm as an autonomous and independent grand duchy.
Proud of its freedom, F. has ever kept alive the flame of its distinctive national sentiment. An independent republic since 1917, it defended its territorial integrity to the utmost during the two wars against Russia in 1939–40 and in 1941–44.
Bruxelles. For general histories of F., among the most recent works are: E. Hornborg, *Finlandes händer*, Helsingfors 1930–33; V. SOMME, *Geschichte Finlands*, Munich-Berlin 1938; E. Hornborg, *Sverige och Ryssland genom tiderna*, Stockholm 1941; T. Thoman, *Finlandes väg genom tiderna*, 1948.
For the ecclesiastical history of F.: E. Bergroth, *Sotmen kirkon historia päätpäätessään*, Borgå 1892; id., *Suomen kirkko*, H. IV 1902; W. Schmidt, *Finlandes kyrka genom tiderna*, Stockholm 1940. On special topics in Finnish ecclesiastical history during the Middle Ages and the “reformation”: K. G. Leinberg.
De finiski historios historia, Helsingfors 1892; K. Stjerna. Erik den helige. En sagohistorisk studie, in Lunds Universitets årskrift 1898; E. Anthoni, Till avvecklingen av konflikten mellan Sverige, Carl och Finland, 1-11, Helsingfors 1935; W. Schmidt. Die Zisterzienser im Baltikum und in Finland, 1914; R. L. Janson-tini, Storia moderna della F. (1809-1940), in Finlandia, a cura di L. Salvini, Roma 1941, pp. 17-48; J. Jankoka, Precis d'histoire de Finlande. Lausanne 1942; A. Giannini. Profilo della storia della F. (1757-1941), Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Manoeuvre de l'armée d'Italie, 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. MilanoA. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milan 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942; A. Tosti. Milano 1942
Finland — Parliament Building and the monument to the Tsars Alexander II. Helsinki.
Military colonists sent there numbered barely 2,000. The same figure is given for the Jews. Indigenous Catholics are partly of Finnish and partly of Swedish origin. Among the other educated classes Swedish culture dominated throughout the country (for literature in the Swedish language in Finland, V. SVEDESE LETTERATURA). It is characteristic that only in the second half of the 19th century was Finnish gradually recognized as an official language alongside Swedish.
The period of Russian rule (1809–1917) had little influence on the nation’s cultural life, even though general conditions remained unfavorable for the Finnish people. A Finnish literature in the artistic sense of the term can only be said to have begun in the mid-19th century. Before that time, one recalls above all Mikael Agricola, who translated the New Testament (1543) and part of the Old.
A Finnish grammar by E. Petrelius appeared in 1649.
In the climate of Romanticism, within a distinctly Swedish cultural environment, Elias Lönnrot (1802–84) sought to draw directly on Finnish folk poetry. Thus there came into being collections that soon attracted the attention of all cultured Europe and revealed values akin to the spirit of the entire continent. The Kalevala, the national epic of the Finns, was compiled by Lönnrot from part of the folkloric material he gathered; a dazzling treasury of legends was selected and harmonized by the poet. The definitive edition (1849) consists of fifty songs.
In an atmosphere of intense national feeling and of political ferment, Alexis Kivi (1834–72) may be regarded as the first notable modern writer with a truly European outlook. Among his works is The Seven Brothers, a novel that blends realistic and lyrical elements within a genuine woodland solitude.
Among the lyric poets should be mentioned Kaarlo Kramsu (1855–95), a poet of pessimism who, in his ballads, evoked painful episodes from Finnish history, and August Ahlqvist (1826–86), better known by the name of Oksanen.
In the last decades of the 19th century, Finnish literature, following the general trend of Western Europe and Scandinavia in particular, adopted a realistic and social orientation, intertwined however with neo-Romantic currents that sought to emphasize national and specifically poetic values against the encroaching dominance of content-driven writing. In a few decades, this very young literature showed signs of rapid maturation and an ability to assimilate the most varied aspects of European culture.
Minna Canth (1844–97) moved from Romanticism to realist and socialist tones; she wrote novels and stories inspired by the proletarian environment. Arvid Järnefelt (1861–1932) was notably influenced by Tolstoy. Juhani Aho (1861–1921), besides being a master of style and language, is a subtle psychologist. Also worthy of mention alongside these are Teuvo Palkala, Santeri Ivalo, and Kasimir Leino.
As the moment of national independence approaches, Finnish literature seems increasingly to free itself from the obligatory tracks that often characterize the beginnings of young literatures. With Enno Leino (1878–1926) the lyrical values were first rekindled, but he also established himself in the theatre and as a narrator; his translation of the *Divine Comedy* is a classic. Otto Manninen (b. 1872) is distinguished by his musicality and is also notable as a translator of major ancient and modern poets (from Homer to Heine and Petőfi). Johannes Linnankoski (1869–1913) is known especially for a novel, *The Song of the Red Flower*, which unfolds with modern sensitivity in a primitive setting, and for a rustic novel, *The Escape Artists*. Aino Kallas (b. 1878), wife of an Estonian writer, generally drew her inspiration from the Estonian environment and also treated problems of feminine psychology with refinement. Larin Kyösti (b. 1873) is a poet rich in fantasy, sometimes with a fairy-tale background; Kasimir Leino (1866–1919) has not unjustly been compared to the Parnassians. V. A. Koskenniemi (b. 1885) is a poet of classical taste, also known as a scholar of Lucretius, Goethe, and Kierkegaard.
It would, however, be impossible to list all the most prominent names that emerged in this first half of the 19th century in Finnish literature. It will suffice, therefore, to recall Frans Emil Sillanpää (b. 1888), Nobel laureate (1939), who, after taking his initial cues from the Norwegian Hansson, established himself as the most notable modern Finnish narrator. In his stories the most diverse social milieux are reflected against the backdrop of the countryside. Among his works to be remembered are *Life and Sun*, *Poor Pia*, *Angel Vigils*, *A Man’s Path*, and *Dorta of the Gypsies* (also published under the title *Silva*).
Cultural life in Finland has been notably affected by the turbulent events of the last 30–40 years. National independence (1917) greatly contributed to the affirmation of culture and its emancipation from a climate heavily permeated by foreign elements. Far more painful were the consequences of the Second World War, linked to the loss of part of the national territory and severe destruction. Yet the tenacious will to live of the Finnish people has been able to overcome these two ordeals: cultural activity has resumed in all fields with astonishing energy.
V. SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FINLAND — The Finnish constitution provides for individual and national education. Freedom of conscience and the rights of minorities are guaranteed. Attendance at elementary school is compulsory and free, lasting 7 years. It is the duty of the elementary school teacher to understand the sphere of interest of the pupil in order to guide him toward the right profession in life. Elementary school is therefore considered the foundation of Finnish life in that it alone selects the talents of pupils. Instruction is informed by the pedagogical doctrines of Comenius and Pestalozzi. The influence of Comenius was already felt in 1649 and is very strong, especially in the schools of the Swedish minority. The government strives to bring elementary education to inaccessible regions.
The number of illiterates is 0.8%.
The school system comprises four types of schools: elementary, secondary called schools of erudition, schools of social erudition, and universities.
Elementary schools are divided into 2-year elementary schools, 4-year higher elementary schools, and 4-year after-school programs.
Secondary schools include the 5-year middle school, 8-year higher schools for boys, and 9-year higher schools for girls. Schools of social erudition include various vocational schools, 5 folk high schools, and 3 labor institutes called free institutes. The universities are in Helsinki (founded in 1640 in Turku and moved to Helsinki in 1888), the Swedish university in Turku (founded in 1918), and the Finnish university in Turku (founded in 1922).