INNOCENT VIII, POPE. — Born in Genoa in 1432, died in Rome between 25 and 26 July 1492. At the death of Pope Sixtus IV in 1484, Rome was in turmoil, and the College of Cardinals was divided into two factions: one led by Rodrigo Borgia, supported by the Orsini, and the other by Giuliano della Rovere, backed by the Colonna. After various negotiations, a temporary truce was reached, allowing the Conclave to begin on 26 August in the Vatican, attended by 25 cardinals, only four of whom were foreigners. Elected was Gian Battista Cibo, aged 52, who in his youth had grown up at the court of Naples, later becoming Bishop of Savona, then transferred to Amalfi, and elevated to the cardinalate in 1473. He was sickly, of uncertain character, very affable, but lacking in willpower and ready to entrust himself to whoever could persuade him.
His youthful conduct had been highly reprehensible, and at the time of his election two of his sons were still alive, whom he showered with wealth and arranged advantageous marriages for (Franceschetto married the daughter of Lorenzo de’ Medici); nor is it excluded that his election had occurred in a simoniacal manner. The coronation took place on 12 September with a solemn procession to the Lateran that passed without incident. I. promoted the arts, had the famous Belvedere built in the Vatican and the villa at Magliana, and embellished various churches; during his time, artists such as Pollaiuolo, Pinturicchio, Mantegna, Lippi, and Perugino worked in Rome. The papal court was sumptuous but immoral, and to meet its enormous expenses recourse was had to every expedient, multiplying offices and selling appointments, which fell into the hands of unworthy incumbents ready to recoup their outlay by fleecing the faithful across Europe, provoking fierce protests everywhere. Added to this were the frequent illnesses of the Pope, which often gave rise to rumours of his death and the disorders that followed in the city—killings, looting, and other unbridled excesses.
In politics, I. was inconsistent. Initially, he was induced to wage war against Ferdinand of Naples because this served the interests of the Colonna, while the Orsini sided with the King. The Romans faced the threat of famine and had to fortify themselves within the walls, but after a long, half-hearted war, the peace party prevailed, also due to the intervention of the King of Spain and Ludovico il Moro. On 12 September 1486, the agreements were published, which entailed some sacrifice on the Pope’s part but restored tranquillity to Rome. Later, the disputes between the Pope and the King of Naples resumed; the latter even appealed to a Council, was excommunicated, and aid was sent from Rome to the rebel barons. Shortly before his death, I. came to terms with Ferdinand, and this time Lorenzo de’ Medici, to whom the Pope had blindly entrusted himself after being assisted by the Florentine signore in his usual financial difficulties, exerted influence over him; one of the rewards was the red hat for Lorenzo’s very young son, Giovanni, who later became Leo X. Alongside Lorenzo, Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere enjoyed great prestige throughout the pontificate, and it was largely through his influence and machinations that I. had obtained the tiara.
Among other political acts of I., one may recall the recognition of Henry VII Tudor as King of England after the Wars of the Roses, and the granting of the title of Catholic King to Ferdinand of Aragon after the capture of Granada and the definitive expulsion of the Arabs from Spain. The Pope even concluded a treaty with the Turkish Sultan Bayezid II, despite having previously preached a crusade against him; the agreement (1489) stipulated the payment of an annual tribute to I., who in return undertook not to foment opposition to the Sultanate—and indeed the Sultan’s brother was kept in a gilded prison in the Vatican.
Two acts that more directly touched the religious sphere are the famous condemnation of the 900 theses of Pico della Mirandola (4 August 1486) and the equally celebrated bull against witchcraft (*Summis desiderantes* of 5 December 1484); to the first Pico replied with a self-defence, to the second followed a campaign by Dominican inquisitors in Germany against the guilty, a persecution not without exaggerated violence due to excessive credulity. See pl. IV.