SCOZIA

SCOTLAND. -

I. GEOGRAPHY

Scotland consists of two mountainous masses separated by a narrow belt of lowland. The northern mass is itself divided by a first alignment of ranges (the Highlands), which continues into the Orkney Islands and faces, across the Minch Channel, the Hebrides: a barren landscape of moors alternating with lakes and peat bogs, averaging about 900 m. in elevation (Ben Attow, 1,291 m.), and separated by the narrower Caledonian Canal from a broader upland area (the Grampian Mountains; Ben Nevis, 1,343 m.), which likewise forms a rugged and inhospitable region. To the south, however, opens the Central Lowlands, a flatter, less humid and far more fertile belt, deeply penetrated by the sea (Clyde, Firth of Forth), where more than two-thirds of the Scottish population is concentrated. The southern mass (the Southern Uplands), lower (500 m.) and narrower, gives way to broader and deeper valleys and is bounded to the south by the

The Irish monk St Columba first evangelized the Kingdom of Dál Riata, founding a monastery on the island of Iona (563), then converted the Picts of Caledonia, where he established other monasteries of Celtic type, while Strathclyde was gradually brought to Christianity. At first the Church of Iona adhered to Irish usages, but after the Synod of Whitby (664) most Celtic Christians accepted Roman customs and organized themselves into a regular hierarchy (v. IRLANDA, III). About the mid-9th century Kenneth MacAlpin, who had become king of both Picts and Scots, transferred the relics of St Columba and the Scottish religious centre from Iona to Dunkeld, in the heart of his kingdom. Under Alexander I the Norman Turgot became bishop of St Andrews, Irish monks were replaced by English Augustinian canons, and the archbishop of York claimed metropolitan jurisdiction over Scotland. The penetration of English religious orders increased under David I. In 1188 Clement III ordered that the nine Scottish bishoprics should depend directly on the Holy See. Honorius III in 1225 granted the bishops the right to summon synods, which were to be presided over by one of their number. In 1472 Sixtus IV erected St Andrews into an archbishopric with twelve suffragans; in 1492 the archbishopric of Glasgow was created with four suffragans.

During the Norwegian incursions the kings of England, by agreement or force, imposed their rule upon Scotland; but the Nordic invasion led to the dissolution of the Kingdom of Northumbria and the incorporation of Lothian into Scotland. In the 11th century, except for the lands still held by the Norwegians, all Scotland was united into a single kingdom by Duncan. He was slain by Macbeth, who in turn was killed by Duncan’s son Malcolm III, who recovered the throne with English help. Malcolm sought to resist William the Conqueror, who forced him by arms to acknowledge his overlordship. In this period many English exiles took refuge in Scotland, while Malcolm’s wife St Margaret (canonized in 1250) introduced English culture to Scotland, strengthened the Roman ecclesiastical system against Celtic tradition, encouraged the arts and sciences, and exercised an effective

Moralizing action on the customs of the Scottish Church. Under David I (1124–53), Scotland underwent a peaceful Norman penetration and became a kingdom of feudal type, a kingdom which David consolidated and extended, also obtaining the investiture of Northumberland and Cumberland. In 1286, after the death of Alexander III and soon after his only descendant, his granddaughter Margaret, who was to have married the Prince of Wales, the future Edward II, a long struggle began between two claimants: John Balliol and Robert the Bruce. A court of justice appointed by Edward I of England recognized Balliol. New revolts and English interventions followed, until, after the death of Edward I, Robert the Bruce defeated the army of Edward II, liberating Scotland. Allied with France, he was recognized by the Pope, and in 1328 the Treaty of Northampton consecrated Scotland’s independence. But new struggles broke out at the death of Robert, between his son David II and the son of John Balliol, Edward. In 1371, at the death of David II, the throne passed to Robert II, grandson of the first Robert and son of Walter, and thus began the new dynasty of the Stuarts.

For many years Scotland was agitated by civil strife between the Crown and the nobles, who relied on England and the turbulent Highlanders. In the 15th century Scottish culture made notable progress; however, religious controversies began to be stirred up by the penetration of Lollard doctrines. James IV (1488–1513) sought to subdue the nobility but was defeated and killed by the English. His successor, James V, sought to tighten relations with France by marrying Mary of Guise. At his death (1542) the crown passed to his infant daughter Mary, while the kingdom was governed by the archbishop David Beaton (nephew of James Beaton and his successor in the archbishopric of Glasgow), whom Paul III created a cardinal. Beaton strove to halt the Protestant movement and opposed the proposed marriage of Mary to the son of Henry VIII. Mary was sent to France, where she married Francis II. Cardinal Beaton was killed in 1546, and the assassins, who had taken refuge in the fortress of St. Andrews, were forced to surrender by a French fleet; one of these, John Knox, fled to Geneva, where he embraced Calvinism.

When Elizabeth ascended the English throne, while Catholics regarded Mary, great-granddaughter of Henry VII, as the legitimate queen, Scottish Protestants united their interests with those of the English; meanwhile, the armed support which France gave to the regent Mary of Guise enabled Knox to identify Calvinism with the defense of national independence. After the death of Mary of Guise in 1560, the French troops, threatened by an English intervention, surrendered; a regency of nobles held the government pending Mary’s return, while Knox organized the Reformed Church on democratic lines. From this point the elective General Assembly, which stood at the summit of the Calvinist hierarchy, dominated the entire political life of the country. The Reformation had thus become so firmly established in Scotland that Mary, upon her return in 1561, was unable to suppress II. Her followers were defeated, and she herself took refuge in England, where she was later (1587) executed by Elizabeth. A failed attempt at a Catholic resurgence in 1579, James VI, son of Mary, who was hostile to Scottish Presbyterianism, and who as James I of England imposed the Anglican confession in Scotland. But when his son Charles I sought to replace nobles with bishops, these in 1638 concluded a national covenant (Covenant) to defend Presbyterianism. The Scottish revolt sparked the English Revolution. After the defeat and execution of Charles I, though aided by the Earl of Montrose and the Catholic Highlanders, Cromwell suppressed by force a revival of non-Presbyterian royalism in Scotland. The restoration of the Stuarts under Charles II rekindled religious strife. The new king showed a certain tolerance toward the Presbyterians but declared the Covenant suppressed and reinstated the bishops. The rebellions that followed were savagely crushed until 1688. After the flight of James II, Catholic and episcopal officials left Scotland, and the Scots restored Calvinism and offered the crown to William of Orange and his wife. The rebel Highlanders were exterminated.

The restoration of Presbyterianism, however, did not restore to the General Assembly the pre-eminence it had previously exercised in matters of government. Finally, Scotland’s economic needs and the fact that England was engaged in war with France led the two states to negotiate their union, which was concluded after long negotiations in 1707. The agreement did not eliminate discontent. Jacobite revolts and futile attempts at restoration followed, ending with the defeat of the pretender Charles Edward at Culloden Moor (1746). The Union Pact of 1707 had not envisaged changes in the Presbyterian Church, but when dissenters were authorized to use the Anglican liturgy and the popular election of ministers was abolished, a first secession occurred (1733). About a century later (1843), when the right of heads of households to reject a minister was annulled, a schism took place, and half the clergy formed the new Free Church of Scotland. At the end of the 19th century, however, the two Presbyterian Churches reunited. The Episcopal Church remained distinct, with seven dioceses.

The Catholic Church had lost property and organization with the “Reformation”; from that point Scotland reverted to being mission territory and thus came under the jurisdiction of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. Leo XII reorganized its ecclesiastical districts in 1827, dividing them into three zones: northern, eastern, and western. In 1878 Leo XIII, with the bull *Ex supremo Apostolatus apice*, reconstituted the Scottish Catholic hierarchy, restoring the archbishopric of St. Andrews and Edinburgh with four suffragan sees, and the archbishopric of Glasgow under the direct jurisdiction of the Holy See. — See pl. VI.