PRESBYTERIANISM. -
I. THE PRESBYTERIAN SYSTEM
Presbyterianism is above all a conception of the Church which, unlike Erastianism and Congregationalism, implies two essential elements: a) the existence of elders (identified by Calvin with the presbyters of Holy Scripture), who are neither ministers of the Word, nor pastoring teachers or doctors, nor deacons, although they may also hold the latter dignity; they do, however, participate in the government of the Church, to a greater or lesser extent. They constitute the *presbyterium*, which, together with the ministers, in each religious community forms the local governing authority. The absolute parity among ministers of the Word, with the exclusion of any prelature, is a well-known characteristic of Presbyterian ecclesiology. A higher authority above the local *presbyterium* is formed by a synod (also called a colloquy or consistory), above which there may be a general assembly of Churches.This constitution was established by Calvin (q.v.) in Geneva, where the Church was placed under the authority of a «consistory», presided over by one of the city’s mayors and composed of six pastors, appointed by their colleagues, subject to the consent of the Little Council and the people, and twelve elders, of whom two were from the Little Council, four from the Council of Sixty, and six from the Council of Two Hundred, all appointed by the latter council upon the presentation of the Little Council and the pastors. In this system there was a place for the laity, but none for a representative or democratic system. Above the «consistory» of the Church of Geneva there was no higher authority.
The Presbyterian system described above arose from particular circumstances in France, among the Huguenots, and in Holland, among the Geuzen. The Huguenots, finding no support whatsoever in civil authority, indeed feeling themselves persecuted by it, organized themselves secretly in a General Synod in 1559. By virtue of the constitution then drafted (which was perfected in subsequent synods), elders and deacons were initially elected by the faithful, but were later replaced, as they died, by the parochial «consistory», after two or three nominees had been notified to the faithful, who could raise objections. The entire body of ministers, elders, and deacons formed the parochial consistory, presided over by a minister chosen by the faithful. All of this was given the name of Presbyterian council, which was responsible not only for overseeing the good conduct of the faithful but also for the purity of doctrine and could communicate [with higher bodies]. No more than one «consistory» was permitted per church. The local «consistory» or Presbyterian council was subject to a «colloquy», which in turn was subject to the provincial synod. Finally, at the top of the structure, there was the national synod, which at first met once a year, composed of delegates from the provinces. This organization was complete as early as the General Synod of Poitiers (1560). Subsequently, the Presbyterian system attributed ever greater importance to popular election.
II. THE VARIOUS PRESBYTERIAN GROUPS
All those Churches in which the Presbyterian system prevails should properly be called Presbyterian, but in practice the name is usually reserved for Protestants of Anglo-Saxon stock.1. Scotland
The Presbyterian system was introduced into Scotland in 1560 by John Knox (q.v.), who, having been trained in Geneva, had helped organize the Calvinist Church in Dieppe, France. He returned to Scotland in the same month of May 1559 in which the first National Synod of French Protestants had been held. He organized the Calvinist Church of Scotland on the French model, though with a manifest hesitation regarding the higher authority. His *First Book of Discipline* of 1560 is rather unclear on this point: it speaks of a general assembly; it seems, however, that this was to be elected not by the people but formed of all the respectable nobles. Only slowly did the French-type Presbyterian system take root in Scotland: at its base was the *presbyterium* of the parish church (Kirk Session); above it the provincial synod; above the provincial synod, the national assembly. This organization was the work of James Melville and dates only to 1578. The celebrated Covenant, sworn by the Presbyterians in 1580, was renewed in 1638 and 1643, at the time of the English Civil Wars. The Presbyterian party then dominated that of the English, and together they gained control in England; this was the occasion of the Westminster Assembly (from 1643 to 1652), which in its early years (1643–46) compiled a Calvinist confession of faith and a liturgical directory. In the same Assembly the Presbyterian constitution was definitively elaborated, excluding any state interference. The decisions of Westminster formed the foundation of the established Church in Scotland. The Scottish Presbyterians, who were quite uncompromising toward left-wing sects (e.g., Congregationalists and Quakers), defended themselves energetically and successfully against Cromwell, then against the last two Stuarts, Charles II and James II. They achieved total victory with the Revolution of 1688 and the new king William III. Following the Act of Union of Scotland with England (which came into force in 1707), the pure Presbyterian system suffered a weakening. The government increasingly usurped the rights of the constituted Church, especially with regard to the appointment of ministers. There were protests and schisms; the dissenters reunited in 1847 into a new Church called the «United Presbyterian Church».A little earlier, in 1833, Parliament’s rejection of the veto law—by which the appointment of a minister by a parish «patron» could be annulled by the veto of the majority of the parish families—led in 1843 to the creation of the «Free Church» or Free Church. Finally, in 1874 Parliament granted to the parishes the right to appoint their own pastors, in accordance with the Presbyterian constitution. All the dissenting Presbyterians (United Presbyterian Church and Free Church) decided in 1900 to unite as the «United Free Church». At present there remain the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, which together number about 1,300,000 adults. There are, in addition, a small number of dissenters: the «Reformed Presbyterian Church» and the «United Original Seeders».
2. England
Calvinism, introduced under Edward VI, only managed to organise itself during the reign of Elizabeth. Presbyterianism received its first impetus from Thomas Cartwright (1535–1603), professor at Cambridge, trained in Geneva; he fought with such violence against the “idolatrous” usages retained in Anglicanism that he was dismissed from teaching in 1570; after a further stay in Geneva, he returned to his homeland to found the Presbyterian Church there, waging a fierce struggle. He rejected the episcopate as a diabolical invention and proclaimed that the government of elders (Ruling Elders) had been established by God Himself. In 1572 the first Presbyterian congregation was organised at Wandsworth, near London. It is reckoned that at the death of Elizabeth in 1603 there were about 100,000 Presbyterians. It is also believed that the violent pamphlets known as those of “Martin Marprelate,” which continually assailed the official religious system in England, were inspired by Cartwright.
Under James I and Charles I, the Presbyterian movement spread, thanks to the partisans of parliamentary liberty against royal absolutism. The defence of civil liberties became joined to that of religious freedoms. Yet once the Presbyterians had become masters of the situation after Parliament’s victory over the King, they proved no less intolerant than Laud’s Anglicanism had been. United with those of Scotland, the English Presbyterians, at the Westminster Conferences, marked the high point of Presbyterian influence in the country. In the end, the fruits of the revolution against Charles I were reaped by Cromwell’s Independents, and Presbyterianism was kept in check; under Charles II the “High Church” was restored, and Presbyterianism did not regain freedom for private worship until 1689, under William III, together with the other dissenting bodies (though not Catholics or Socinians). In the 18th century, Presbyterianism in England merely vegetated and was permeated by rationalism; only in 1820 was there a certain revival, when the three Presbyterian groups in England (Presbyterian Church of England, Welsh Presbyterians, Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales) began to hold a national synod every three years. At present, English Presbyterians number about 100,000 adults.
3. Northern Ireland
Presbyterianism was introduced into Ireland as early as 1594, but it was developed through the system of the Plantations of Ulster, namely the transfer, at the instigation of Catholic landowners, of actual colonies of Scottish Presbyterians to Northern Ireland under James I, and later of English ones under Cromwell. Yet Presbyterianism only met with real success in Ulster. Two groups are distinguished: the “Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland” and the “Eastern Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland”; their numbers are limited.
4. North America
Especially in the United States, Presbyterianism was able to develop over a vast territory and with complete freedom; many emigrants from England and also from Ireland and Scotland who settled in North America in the 17th century were Presbyterians. Their numbers later increased with Huguenots expelled from France or Arminians emigrating from Holland. This diversity of origin explains the numerous varieties of Presbyterianism that have developed in the United States.
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III. CURRENT TENDENCIES
Owing to the diversity of their groups, the Presbyterians of America were the first to consider reconstituting unity. The first step in this direction dates from July 1877, through the efforts of Professor MacCosh of Belfast (Northern Ireland).Among Presbyterians today, three main tendencies can be distinguished:
a) those who accept the Westminster Confession with its strict formulations and great individual freedom regarding predestination;
b) those who refuse to subscribe to the Westminster Confession (non-subscribing Presbyterians), especially in England and Ireland;
c) those who are even more liberal, with doctrines steeped in modern rationalism, especially regarding the dogmas of the Holy Trinity and the Incarnation.
From the liturgical point of view, all Presbyterian denominations retain a great affinity: worship is austere, indifferent to art, hostile to any mysticism, without altars, baptismal fonts, candles, or images, except for some in stained glass. Organs are almost always absent; the minister wears a black gown; the sermon, which absorbs everything, is often read. Metrical psalms are sung; prayers are left to the minister’s initiative, and the faithful listen, each maintaining the posture they prefer (some kneeling, some standing, some seated). The so-called “long prayer” lasts on average from ten to fifteen minutes where it is still practised.
One of the most notable features of Presbyterianism, especially in Scotland and England, is the rigour with which Sunday observance, also called the “Lord’s Sabbath,” is kept. Opponents of Presbyterianism accuse it of giving excessive importance to this observance: it seems almost as if there were no other sin than that of Sabbath-breaking. Assiduous readers of the Bible and austere Puritans in their morals, Presbyterians in history present themselves as people who ostentatiously practise the finest family virtues and display great religious zeal. The Protestant historian A. de Mestral observes that they love their Church, not as a mother, but as a daughter—i.e., not for what they receive from it, but for what they give to II.