Presbyterianism

PRESBYTERIANISM. - I. THE PRESBYTERIAN SYSTEM. - Presbyterianism is above all a conception of the Church which, unlike episcopalianism and congregationalism, implies two essential elements: a) the existence of elders (identified by Calvin with the presbyters of Holy Scripture), who are neither ministers of the word, nor pastors who teach or doctors, nor deacons, although they may also hold the latter dignity; they nevertheless participate in the government of the Church, to a greater or lesser extent. They constitute the presbyterium which, in agreement with the ministers, in each religious community, constitutes the local governing authority. The absolute equality among the ministers of the word, with the exclusion of any prelature, is a well-known characteristic of Presbyterian ecclesiology. A higher instance in relation to the local presbyterium is formed by a synod (also called colloquy, or consistory), above which there may be the general assembly of the Churches.

This constitution was established by Calvin (v.) in Geneva, where the Church was placed under the authority of a "consistory," presided over by one of the syndics of the city and composed of six pastors, appointed by their other colleagues, subject to the consent of the Small Council and of the people, and of twelve elders, of whom two from the Small Council, four from the Council of Sixty and six from the Council of Two Hundred, all appointed by the latter council, on the presentation of the Small Council and of the pastors. In this system there was a place for the laity, but none for the representative or democratic system. Above the "consistory" of the Church of Geneva there was no higher instance.

The Presbyterian system described above arose from particular circumstances in France, among the Huguenots, and in Holland, among the Guesc. The Huguenots, finding no support whatsoever in the civil power, and indeed feeling persecuted by it, organized themselves secretly in a General Synod in 1559. By virtue of the constitution then sketched out (which was perfected in subsequent synods), the elders and deacons were at first elected by the faithful, then replaced, as they died, by the parish "consistory," but only after two or three names had been notified to the faithful, who could raise their objections. The body of ministers, elders and deacons formed the parish consistory, presided over by a minister chosen by the faithful. To all this was given the name of presbyterial council, whose responsibility was oversight not only of the good conduct of the faithful, but also of the purity of doctrine, and which could excommunicate. No more than one "consistory" per church was admitted. The local "consistory" or presbyterial council was subject to a "colloquy," which in turn was subject to the provincial synod. Finally, at the top of the edifice, there is the national synod, which, at the beginning, met once a year, formed by delegates of the provinces. This organization was complete from the General Synod of Poitiers (1560) onward. Subsequently the presbyterial system attributed ever greater importance to popular election.

II. THE VARIOUS PRESBYTERIAN GROUPS

All those churches in which the presbyterian system prevails should be considered presbyterian churches; in practice, however, the name "P." is customarily reserved for Protestants of Anglo-Saxon stock.

1. Scotland

The presbyterian system was introduced in 1560 by John Knox (v.), who, having been trained in Geneva, had helped in France to organize the Calvinist Church of Dieppe. He returned to Scotland in the same month of May 1559 in which the first National Synod of the French Protestants had been held. He organized the Calvinist Church of Scotland on the French model, but with a manifest indecision as to the higher authority. His First Book of Discipline of 1560 is rather obscure on this point: it speaks of a general assembly; it seems, however, that this was to be elected not by the people, but formed of all well-minded nobles. Only slowly did the presbyterian system, of the French type, take root in Scotland: at its base was the presbyterium of the parish church (Kirk-Session); above it the provincial synod; above the provincial synod, the national assembly. This organization was the work of James Melville and dates only from 1578. The famous Covenant league, sworn in 1580 by the Presbyterians, was renewed in 1638 and in 1643, at the time of the English civil wars. Scottish Presbyterianism was then allied with English Presbyterianism, and both became masters of the situation in England; that was the occasion of the Westminster Conference (from 1643 to 1652), which in its early years (1643-46) compiled a Calvinist confession of faith and a liturgical directory. At the same Conference the presbyterian constitution was definitively elaborated, with the exclusion of any interference by the State. The decisions of Westminster were the foundation of the Church of State in Scotland. The Scottish Presbyterians, quite intransigent toward the left-wing sects (e.g., the Congregationalists and the Quakers), defended themselves with energy and success against Cromwell, then against the last two Stuarts, Charles II and James II. They won a total triumph with the revolution of 1688 and the new king William III. Following the Act of Union of Scotland with England (which came into force in 1707), the pure presbyterian system underwent a weakening. The government increasingly usurped the rights of the established Church, especially as regards the appointment of ministers. There were protests and schisms; the dissidents came together in 1847 in a new Church, called the "United Presbyterian Church."

A little earlier, in 1833, Parliament's rejection of the "veto law," by which the appointment of a minister by a parish "patron" could be annulled by the veto of the majority of the families of the parish, led to the creation, in 1843, of the "Free Church." Finally, in 1874 Parliament granted the parishes the right to appoint their pastors, in accordance with the presbyterian constitution. All the presbyterian dissidents (United Presbyterian Church and Free Church) decided in 1900 to form together the "United Free Church." At present there remain the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, which together count about 1,300,000 adults. There is, moreover, a small number of dissidents: the "Reformed Presbyterian Church" and the "United Original Seceders."

2. England

Calvinism, introduced under Edward VI, managed to organize itself only under the reign of Elizabeth. Presbyterianism received its first impulse from Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603), a professor at Cambridge, trained in Geneva; he fought with such violence the "idolatrous" customs retained in Anglicanism that he was relieved of his teaching in 1570; after another stay in Geneva, he returned to his homeland to found the presbyterian Church there, waging a violent struggle. He rejected the episcopate as a diabolical invention and proclaimed that the government of elders (Ruling Elders) had been established by God himself. In 1572 the first presbyterian community was organized at Wandsworth, near London. It is estimated that at the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, there were about 100,000 Presbyterians. It is also believed that the violent libels, known as those of "Martin Marprelate," with which the official system of religion in England was continually assailed, were inspired by Cartwright. Under James I and Charles I, the presbyterian movement expanded, thanks to the partisans of parliamentary liberty against royal absolutism. The defense of civil liberties was joined to that of religious liberties. The Presbyterians, however, having become masters of the situation after the victory of Parliament over the King, did not show themselves truly any less intolerant than Anglicanism under Laud had been. United with those of Scotland, the Presbyterians of England at the Westminster Conferences marked the culminating point of presbyterian influence in the country. In the end, the fruits of the revolution against Charles I were gathered by Cromwell's Independents, and Presbyterianism was held in check; under Charles II the "High Church" was restored, and Presbyterianism did not regain freedom of private worship until 1689, under William III, together with the other sects (with the exception, however, of Catholics and Socinians). In the 18th century Presbyterianism in England merely vegetated and allowed itself to be pervaded by rationalism; only in 1820 was a certain revival noted, when the three presbyterian groups of England (Presbyterian Church of England, Welsh Presbyterians, Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales) began to hold a national synod every three years. At present English Presbyterians number about 100,000 adults.

3. Northern Ireland

Presbyterianism was introduced into Ireland as early as 1594, but it was developed there by the system of the Plantations of Ulster, that is, by the transfer to Northern Ireland, at the expense of the Catholic landowners, of veritable colonies of Scottish Presbyterians under James I, and then of English, under Cromwell. But Presbyterianism achieved true success only in Ulster. Two groups are distinguished: the "Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland," and the "Eastern Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland"; their number is limited.

4. North America

Especially in the United States was Presbyterianism able to develop over a vast territory and with every freedom; many emigrants from England and also from Ireland and Scotland, who moved to America in the 17th century, were Presbyterians. Their number then grew with Huguenots expelled from France or with Arminians who emigrated from Holland. This diversity of origin explains the numerous varieties of Presbyterianism that have developed in the United States.

III. CURRENT TRENDS

Because of the diversity of their groups, the Presbyterians of America were the first to think of re-establishing unity. The first move in this direction dates back to July 1877, through the work of Professor Mac Cosh, of Belfast (Northern Ireland).

A general conference, held in Edinburgh (Scotland), gave rise to the Pan-Presbyterian Alliance, which brought together all the Presbyterian Churches of Scotland, England, Ireland, Spain, France, Holland, the missionary Churches of Belgium, the Free Churches of Switzerland, the Reformed Churches of Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, Russia, the missionary Churches of Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia, Formosa.

This Alliance published, from 1885, the Quarterly Review, in London. It was agreed that the union should be made solely on the basis of the community proper to the Presbyterian system, which makes room for the laity and is founded on election. No account was to be taken of doctrinal differences. General Synods were held in Philadelphia (1880), Belfast (1884), London (1888), Toronto (1892), Glasgow (1896), Washington (1899), etc. By its very diversity, the Alliance began to claim the title of "ecumenical"; it would, however, be more accurate to say that it is international and interdenominational, since there is in it no unity of doctrine.

A second step toward the linking of the groups has been taken recently. A special issue of the Christian Century, of 13 Dec. 1950, announced the creation of the National Council of the Church of Christ in the United States. The Presbyterians of the United States of America (approx. 3,400,000 adults), the Baptists (approx. 8,000,000 adults), the Lutherans (approx. 1,700,000 adults), the Methodists (approx. 10,000,000 adults), the Episcopalians (1,671,000 adults), and several Congregationalist denominations: Disciples of Christ, Quakers, etc. (altogether 6,000,000 adults) have joined it. This federation adheres as a bloc to the ecumenical movement of the Churches, which has not ceased to develop from 1919 onward (v. PROTESTANTESIMO).

IV. CONCLUSION

From the doctrinal point of view, three tendencies are currently noticeable in Presbyterianism: a) those who have remained faithful to the Westminster Confession of Faith (of 1643-46), strictly Calvinist and Congregationalist, but with a certain elasticity in the formulas and a great individual liberty with regard to Predestination; b) those who refuse to subscribe to the Westminster Confession (nonsuscribing Presbyterians), especially in England and Ireland; c) those who show themselves even more broad-minded, with doctrines imbued with modern rationalism, as regards the dogmas of the Most Holy Trinity and of the Incarnation.

From the liturgical point of view, all Presbyterian denominations retain a great affinity: worship has an austere character, indifferent to art, hostile to all mysticism, without altars, baptistery, candles, images, except for some in the stained-glass windows. The organ is almost always missing; the pastor limits himself to wearing a black robe; the sermon, which has absorbed everything, is often read. Rhymed psalms are sung, the prayers are left to the pastor's initiative, and the faithful listen to them, each keeping whatever posture he pleases (some kneeling, some standing, some seated). What is called "the long prayer" lasts on average from 10 to 15 minutes, wherever it is still practiced.

One of the most notable elements of Presbyterianism, especially in Scotland and England, is the rigor of the observance of Sunday rest, also called the "Lord's Sabbath." The opponents of Presbyterianism accuse it of giving this observance an excessive importance: it almost seems that there is no other sin than that of sabbath-breaking. Assiduous readers of the Bible, austere Puritans in their morals, Presbyterians present themselves in history as people who ostentatiously practice the finest family virtues and manifest a great religious zeal. The Protestant historian A. de Mestral observes that they love their Church, not as a mother, but as a daughter, that is, not for what they receive from it, but for what they give to it.

Leone Cristiani