PRESBITERIANISM. –
I. THE PRESBYTERIAN SYSTEM
Presbyterianism is above all a conception of the Church which, unlike episcopalism and congregationalism, implies two essential elements: a) the existence of elders (identified by Calvin with the presbyters of S. Scripture), who are neither ministers of the word, nor pastors who teach or doctors, nor deacons, although they may also hold the latter dignity; they nevertheless participate in the government of the Church, to a greater or lesser extent. They constitute the presbyterium which, in agreement with the ministers, constitutes the local governing authority in each religious community. Absolute parity among the ministers of the word, with the exclusion of every prelacy, is a characteristic feature of Presbyterian ecclesiology. A higher body in relation to the local presbyterium is formed by a synod (also called a colloquium, or consistory), above which there may be the general assembly of the Churches.This constitution was established by Calvin (v.) in Geneva, where the Church was placed under the authority of a “consistory,” presided over by one of the city’s syndics and composed of six pastors, appointed by their fellow ministers, subject to the consent of the Little Council and the people, and of twelve elders, two of them from the Little Council, four from the Council of Sixty, and six from the Council of Two Hundred, all appointed by the latter council upon presentation by the Little Council and the pastors. In this system there was a place for the laity, but none for a representative or democratic system. Above the “consistory” of the Church of Geneva there was no higher body.
The Presbyterian system described above arose from particular circumstances in France, among the Huguenots, and in Holland, among the Guesc. The Huguenots, finding no support whatsoever from the civil authority and, indeed, feeling persecuted by it, organized themselves secretly in a General Synod in 1559. By virtue of the constitution then outlined (which was perfected in subsequent synods), the elders and deacons were at first elected by the faithful, and were later replaced, as they died, by the parish “consistory,” though only after two or three names had been submitted to the faithful, who could raise their objections. The ministers, elders, and deacons collectively formed the parish consistory, presided over by a minister chosen by the faithful. All this was given the name of presbyterial council, which was responsible for supervising not only the good conduct of the faithful but also the purity of doctrine, and which could excommunicate. More than one “consistory” per church was not permitted. The local “consistory,” or presbyterial council, was placed under a “colloquium,” which in turn was subject to the provincial synod. Finally, at the summit of the structure was the national synod, which at first met once a year and was composed of delegates from the provinces. This organization was complete as early as the General Synod of Poitiers (1560). Subsequently, the presbyterial system assigned ever greater importance to popular election.
II. THE VARIOUS PRESBYTERIAN GROUPS
All churches in which the presbyterial system is in force should be considered Presbyterian churches; in practice, however, the name Presbyterian is usually reserved for Protestants of Anglo-Saxon stock.1. Scotland. — The presbyterial system was introduced in 1560 Knox (v.), who, having been trained in Geneva, had helped to organize the Calvinist Church of Dieppe in France. He returned to Scotland in the same month of May 1559 in which the first National Synod of the French Protestants had been held. He organized the Calvinist Church of Scotland on the French model, but with evident uncertainty regarding the higher authority. His First Book of Discipline of 1560 is rather obscure on this point: it speaks of a general assembly; it nevertheless seems that this was to be elected not by the people, but formed of all right-minded nobles. Only gradually did the presbyterial system, of the French type, become established in Scotland: at its base was the presbyterium of the parish church (Kirk-Session); above it, the provincial synod; above the provincial synod, the national assembly. This organization was the work of James Melville and dates only from 1578. The celebrated Covenant League, sworn by the Presbyterians in 1580, was renewed in 1638 and 1643, at the time of the English civil wars. Scottish Presbyterianism was then allied with English Presbyterianism, and both became masters of the situation in England; this was the occasion for the Westminster Assembly (from 1643 to 1652), which in its early years (1643-46) drew up a Calvinist confession of faith and a liturgical directory. At the same Assembly, the Presbyterian constitution was definitively elaborated, with the exclusion of any interference by the State. The decisions of Westminster became the foundation of the Established Church in Scotland. The Scottish Presbyterians, highly uncompromising toward left-wing sects (e.g., Congregationalists and Quakers), defended themselves energetically and successfully against Cromwell, and then against the last two Stuarts, Charles II and James II. They achieved complete triumph with the Revolution of 1688 and the accession of the new king, William III. Following the Act of Union between Scotland and England (which came into force in 1707), the pure presbyterial system suffered a weakening. The government increasingly usurped the rights of the established Church, especially with regard to the appointment of ministers. Protests and schisms followed; in 1847 the dissenters joined together in a new Church, called the « United Presbyterian Church ».
A little earlier, in 1833, Parliament’s rejection of the « veto law », whereby the appointment of a minister by a parish « patron » could be annulled by the veto of the majority of the parish families, led to the creation, in 1843, of the « Free Church », or Free Church. Finally, in 1874 Parliament granted parishes the right to appoint their pastors, in accordance with the Presbyterian constitution. All the Presbyterian dissenters (United Presbyterian Church and Free Church) decided in 1900 to form together the « United Free Church ». At present there remain the Established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, which together number approximately 1,300,000 adults. There is also a small number of dissenters: « Reformed Presbyterian Church » and « United Original Seceders ».
2. England. — Calvinism, introduced under Edward VI, succeeded in organizing itself only under the reign of Elizabeth. Presbyterianism received its first impetus from Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603), a professor at Cambridge who had been trained in Geneva; he opposed the « idolatrous » practices retained in Anglicanism with such violence that he was dismissed from teaching in 1570. After another stay in Geneva, he returned to his homeland to found the Presbyterian Church there, engaging in a violent struggle. He rejected episcopacy as a diabolical invention and proclaimed that the government of the elders (Ruling Elders) had been established by God himself. In 1572 the first Presbyterian community was organized at Wandsworth, near London. It is estimated that at Elizabeth’s death, in 1603, there were approximately 100,000 Presbyterians. It is also believed that the violent pamphlets known as « Martin Mar prelate », with which the official system of religion in England was continually assailed, were inspired by Cartwright. Under James I and Charles I, the Presbyterian movement expanded, thanks to the supporters of parliamentary liberty against royal absolutism. The defense of civil liberties became joined to that of religious liberties. Once they had become masters of the situation, however, after Parliament’s victory over the King, the Presbyterians did not prove truly less intolerant than Laud’s Anglicanism had been. United with those of Scotland, the Presbyterians of England marked the high point of Presbyterian influence in the country at the Westminster Assemblies. In the end, the fruits of the revolution against Charles I were gathered by Cromwell’s Independents, and Presbyterianism was kept in check; under Charles II the « High Church » was restored, and Presbyterianism did not regain freedom of private worship until 1689, under William III, together with the other sects (except Catholics and Socinians). In the eighteenth century Presbyterianism in England merely vegetated and allowed itself to be permeated by rationalism; only in 1820 was a certain revival observed, when the three Presbyterian groups in England (Presbyterian Church of England, Welsh Presbyterians, Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales) began to hold a national synod every three years. At present English Presbyterians number approximately 100,000 adults.
3. Northern Ireland. — Presbyterianism was introduced into Ireland as early as 1594, but it was developed through the system of the Plantations of Ulster, that is, through the transfer to Northern Ireland, at the expense of Catholic landowners, of actual colonies of Scottish Presbyterians under James I, and later of Englishmen under Cromwell. Presbyterianism achieved real success, however, only in Ulster. Two groups are distinguished: « Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland » and « Eastern reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland »; their numbers are limited.
4. North America. — It was above all in the United States that Presbyterianism was able to develop across a vast territory and in complete freedom; many emigrants from England, as well as from Ireland and Scotland, who moved to America in the seventeenth century, were Presbyterians. Their numbers later increased through Huguenots expelled from France and Arminians emigrating from the Netherlands. This diversity of origins explains the numerous forms of Presbyterianism that developed in the United States.
III. CURRENT TENDENCIES
Because of the diversity of their groups, the Presbyterians of America were the first to consider restoring unity. The first step in this direction dates back to July 1877 and was taken through the efforts of Professor Mac Cosh of Belfast (Northern Ireland).