ALBERTO MAGNO (A. DE LAUGING [LAUINGEN], A. TEUTONICUS, A. DI COLONIA, A. MAGNUS), SANTO, DOTTORE

ALBERT THE GREAT (A. DE LAUGING [LAUINGEN], A. TEUTONICUS, A. OF COLOGNE, A. MAGNUS), Saint, Doctor. —

SUMMARY:

1. Life

2. Personality, the Doctor and the Saint

3. His Writings

4. Doctrinal Influence

5. Cultivator of the Natural Sciences.

5. LIFE

Two opinions are in conflict regarding the year of his birth. The first — the more probable — places it at the end of the 12th century (1193? Pelster, Callay, Scheeben, Puccetti, Weiss), while the second fixes it in the year 1206 (Endres, Michael, Mandonnet). A. was born at Lauingen, a Swabian town on the Danube, in the diocese of Augsburg, into a military family (not the counts of Bollstadt). From his youth he showed a great admiration for nature and devoted himself to study, contrary to the wishes of his family, who wanted to steer him toward an administrative or military career. For the sake of his studies he attended the University of Padua, where he was won over to the Order of Preachers by the Blessed Jordan of Saxony and donned the Dominican habit. He was later invited to Cologne, to the central convent of Germany, and after serving as lector in the convents of Hildesheim, Freiburg, Ratisbon, Strasbourg, and Cologne, he taught theology, at least from 1245 onward, at the University of Paris. There he began to draft his great scientific encyclopedia, which, although well advanced by 1256, he continued to expand throughout the rest of his life.

As head of the new Dominican studium generale in Cologne (1248–54), in its early years he had among his disciples Thomas Aquinas, who there heard from the master his commentary on the De divinis nominibus of the Pseudo-Dionysius and on the Nicomachean Ethics. Besides teaching, A. zealously devoted himself to sacred ministry, the guidance of souls, and the work of reconciliation among princes and cities, between persons and institutions. Elected in 1254 provincial of the vast German province, he presided over provincial chapters, attended the general chapters of Milan (1255) and Paris (1256), visited convents, fostered the contemplative life of nuns, in 1256 communicated to his brethren the Pope’s desire that they labor in the missions of Livonia and Prussia, and

In 1256, before the papal curia at Anagni, he defended the rights of the mendicant orders against their adversaries led by Guglielmo di Sant'Amore, whose treatise *De periculis novissimorum temporum* was condemned by Clement IV on 5 October 1256. Following the curia to Rome and Viterbo until 1257, he distinguished himself not only through his lectures on the Gospel of St John and the Epistles of St Paul but also through his counsel and holy life. At the Pope’s request, he refuted the Averroistic theory in *De unitate intellectus*. During one of his stays in Italy (1257 according to Mandonnet, 1262–63 according to Pelster), he is credited with the discovery of Aristotle’s *De motu animalium*, which he later published with a commentary. Relieved of his office as provincial by the general chapter in Florence in 1257, A. resumed his studies and teaching in Cologne, collaborating with Buonomo il Bretone, Florenzio di Hesdin, Thomas Aquinas, and Peter of Tarentaise in drafting the *ratio studiorum dominicana*, approved by the general chapter at Valenciennes in 1259. Called as an arbiter in the dispute between Archbishop Konrad of Hochstaden and the city of Cologne, on 1 March 1260 he issued a celebrated sentence, followed by further judgments in disputes between Cologne and Utrecht, between churches and monasteries, and between private individuals.

Appointed on 5 January 1260 by Alexander IV to the see of Regensburg, he restored the diocese’s finances, reorganized charitable works, provided material and spiritual assistance to parishes and convents, and met with the bishops of the ecclesiastical province of Salzburg to reach common agreements. After reorganizing the diocese, he asked the Pope in 1261 to be relieved of the episcopate and returned to Italy until 1263. On 13 February 1263 Urban IV appointed him preacher of the crusade for Germany, Bohemia, and all German-speaking lands. Arriving in Germany in early May, for two years he carried out papal mandates “for the aid of the Holy Land.” It was the first time that a general collector with the faculties of a papal nuncio, vested with broad spiritual powers, appeared in Germany. The legate, however, met with little success. The death of Urban IV led him to cease his functions, rendered futile by the political misunderstanding of Clement IV. Settling first in Würzburg (1264–67) and then in Strasbourg (1267–70), he devoted himself to teaching and episcopal ministry and enjoyed singular authority among his contemporaries.

At the beginning of 1271 A. was again in the Rhenish metropolis to settle the dispute that had arisen between Archbishop Engelbert of Falkenberg and the city of Cologne. Many were the sentences in pending cases between chapters and convents, between private individuals and institutions, and many too the authentications, the granting of indulgences, the consecrations of churches and altars. Notable were the delegation of trust accorded to him by the Pope for the election of the abbot of Fulda and that of King Rudolph of Hapsburg for the guarantee of the bishop of Munich, Eberhard of Diest. He attended the Council of Lyons in 1274 and, during a visit to Paris in 1276–77, defended his Aristotelian positions and those of Thomas Aquinas, whose authority he commended to his Order.

In January 1279, “sound and in good health,” he made his testament by papal privilege. Death overtook him in his cell at Cologne on 15 November 1280. His remains were laid in a magnificent tomb in the convent choir and after the French Revolution were transferred to the church of St Andrew, where they still repose.

6. HIS PERSONALITY, THE DOCTOR AND THE SAINT

Of medium stature, strong, healthy and lean build, of rather sanguine temperament, vigorous constitution, extraordinary diligence and application to work, with a searching and open eye alike in his study and on his long journeys, A. enclosed within his soul treasures of greatness and outstanding nobility. His acute, penetrating and comprehensive intellect was steeped in speculation and contemplation; he grasped the spiritual problems of his time and set them on the path to solution with a genius and titanic effort. In this task his generous, magnanimous will revealed itself, ever ready to promote great things and forgetful of self. Besides being an intellectual, he was also a man of high spirituality, a man of prayer, humble, a convinced and zealous son of St Dominic. In him deep contemplation was united with sure experience, untiring research with the noble impulse to act and work. His learning, together with his works for culture and charity inspired by priestly and apostolic spirit, won him the highest personal authority in his time.

Ulrich of Strasbourg (d. 1277) mentions him in the Summa de bono, tr. 3, 4: “a man so divine in all learning that he may deservedly be called the wonder and miracle of our age.” Ptolemy of Lucca (d. 1326) in Hist. ecc., XXII, 18 says: “Albert the German of most illustrious life... in the universality of his learning and his manner of teaching held the highest excellence among the doctors”; and Roger Bacon (d. 1294): “he had in life an authority that no man ever had on earth... a most studious man who saw infinite things and spent much and so was able to gather much from the infinite ocean of authors... the common people adhered to them (Alexander of Hales and Albert) as to angels” (Op. minus, ed. Brewer, pp. 30, 327).

For contemporary appreciation of A. M., one may consult Ehrle, von Hertling, Mandonnet, Grabmann, Scheeben, Wilms, Puccetti, and the canonization bull.

Personal and doctrinal authority was not separated in A. from the cult that he merited soon after his death both within and outside the Dominican Order. In Cologne his tomb was venerated throughout the centuries. In Lauingen the chapel of All Saints was called, perhaps as early as the 14th century, the chapel of A. M. An exhumation of the body took place in Cologne before 1415, and another in 1483 in the presence of the Master General Salvo Cassetta, authorized by Sixtus IV. Innocent VIII granted in 1484 to the Dominican churches of Cologne and Ratisbon the office of the blessed. The celebration of the feast was extended in 1622 to the diocese of Ratisbon, in 1670 to the entire Dominican Order, and in more recent times to the archdioceses of Cologne, Munich, Paris, as well as to the dioceses of Rottenburg, Würzburg, Freiburg, Augsburg. On 16 December 1931 Pius XI declared him a saint and Doctor of the Church (bull In thesauris sapientiae: AAS, 24 [1932], pp. 1-17), while Pius XII, on 16 December 1941, named him patron of cultivators of the natural sciences (brief Ad Deum: AAS, 34 [1942], pp. 89-91).

7. HIS WRITINGS

The literary activity of A. M., extending to almost all profane and sacred disciplines, is considered the most gigantic of the Middle Ages. From the very beginning, the printing press reproduced many of Albert’s works. Two editions were published under the title Opera omnia, the first in 21 folio volumes edited by Pietro Jammy O. P. in Lyons in 1651, the second in 38 quarto volumes by the Abbé Auguste Borgnet in Paris between 1800 and 1899. Neither corresponds to modern scientific criteria; indeed, the second is merely a reprint of the first. The authenticity of several writings moreover has not yet been sufficiently clarified.

The following list records the works considered authentic, indicating the volume and pages of the Borgnet edition (B) or another special edition.

I. PHILOSOPHIA RATIONALIS OR LOGIC.
1. De praedicabilibus (= Super Isagogen Porphyrii, B. I, 1-148); 2. De praedicamentis (In Categorias Aristotelis, B. I, 149-304); 3. De sex principiis (Gilberti Porteani: B. I, 305-72); 4. In Boetii de divisione (von Loe, Bonn 1913); 5. In duos Perihermenias (B. I, 373-457);

6. In Boëtii de syllogismis categoriciis (ined.), 7. In duos Priorum Analyticorum (B. I, 459-509); 8. In Boëtii de syllogismis hypotheticis (ined.), 9. In duos Posteriorum Analyticorum (B. II, 1-232); 10. In octo Topicorum (B. II, 233-524); 11. In duos Elenchorum (B. II, 525-713).

II. PHILOSOPHIA REALIS: a) Physica sive naturalis.
1. *De audito physico* (= in eight books *Physicorum*, B. III, 1-632); 2. *In duos libros de generatione et corruptione* (B. IV, 345-457); 3. *In quattuor libros de caelo et mundo* (B. IV, 1-321); 4. *De natura locorum* (B. IX, 587-585); 5. *De causis proprietatum elementorum* (B. IX, 585-657); 6. *In quattuor libros Meteororum* (B. IV, 477-508); 7. *De mineralibus* (B. V, 1-103); 8. *In tres libros de anima* (B. V, 117-420); 9. *De nutrimento* (B. IX, 323-411); 10. *De sensu et sensato* (B. IX, 1-93); 11. *De memoria et reminiscencia* (B. IX, 97-118); 12. *De intellectu et intelligibili* (B. IX, 477-525); 13. *De natura et origine animae* (= *De natura intellectualis animae et contemplatione*, B. IX, 375-434); 14. *De quindecim problematibus* (P. Mandonnet, *Siger de Brabant*, II, Lovainio 1968); 15. *De unitate intellectus contra averroistas* (B. IX, 437-755); 16. *De somno et vigilia* (B. IX, 121-207); 17. *De spiritu et respiratione* (B. IX, 213-532); 18. *De motibus progressivis* (= *De principiis motus progressivi*, B. X, 321-558); 19. *De aetate* (= *De iuventute et senectute*, B. IX, 305-519); 20. *De morte et vita* (B. IX, 345-711); 21. *De animalibus libri viginti sex* (with *De partibus animalium*, B. XI-XII, Stadler, Münster 1916-20); 22. *Quaestiones super libros De animalibus* (ined.); 23. *De vegetabilis et plantis libri septem* (B. X, 1-305; Meyer-Jessen, Berlino 1867).

Regarding *De fato* (= *De sensu communi*), cf. Meersseman, p. 138. On the *Philosophia pauperum*, see Alberto da Orlamunde.

b) Mathematica. *Super geometriam Euclidis* (ined.).

c) Metaphysica.
1. *Metaphysicorum libri tredecim* (B. VI, 1-725); 2. *De causis et processu universitatis* (*In librum de causis*, B. X, 361-619); 3. *De natura deorum* (lost).

III. PHILOSOPHIA MORALIS.
1. *In decem libros Ethicorum* (B. VII, 1-611); 2. *In octo libros Politicorum* (B. VIII, 1-804); 3. *Scriptum et quaestiones super Ethicam Nicomachicam* (ined.).

The theological works can be divided into three categories:

I. EXEGESIS.
1. *Super Job* (Weiss, Friburgo 1904); 2. *Super Psalmos* (B. XV-XVII); 3. *In cap. XI Proverbiorum* (= *De muliere forti*, B. XVIII, 1-242); 4. *In Ieremiam* (fragments, cf. Meersseman, p. 90 ff.); 5. *In Threnos Ieremiae* (B. XVIII, 243-353); 6. *In Baruch* (B. XVIII, 447-653); 7. *In duodecim Prophetas minores* (B. XIX, 1-650); 8. *In Matthaeum* (B. XX-XXI 1-338); 9. *In Marcum* (B. XXI, 339-761); 10. *In Lucam* (B. XXXII-XXXIII); 11. *In Ioannem* (B. XXIV).

The manuscript tradition of *In Canticum Canticorum*, *In Isaiam*, *In Ezechielem*, and *In epistulas s. Pauli* is unknown.

### III. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY
1. On the Divine Names of Dionysius (unpublished); 2. On the Celestial Hierarchy of Dionysius (vol. XIV, pp. 1-451); 3. On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy of Dionysius (vol. XIII, pp. 470-805); 4. On the Mystical Theology of Dionysius (vol. XIII, pp. 811-62); 5. On the Eleven Epistles of Dionysius (vol. XIV, pp. 867-1027); 6. Commentary on the Four Books of the Sentences (vols. XXV-XXX); 7. Summa Theologiae (first part): On Creation and Creatures (Summa de creaturis: On the Four Coaevals, vol. XXXIV, pp. 307-798); On Man, vol. XXXV; On Good and Virtues (= Summa de bono et virtutibus, unpublished); On the Sacraments (unpublished); On the Resurrection (unpublished); On the Nature of Good in Creatures (unpublished); 9. Summa Theologiae (second part; vols. XXXI-XXXIII); 10. On the Sacrifice of the Mass (vol. XXXVIII, pp. 1-169); 11. On the Sacrament of the Eucharist (vol. XXXVIII, pp. 191-432); 12. Thirty-two Sermons on the Sacrament of the Eucharist (vol. XIII, pp. 669-797); 13. Mariale or Questions on the Missus est (= On the Praises of the B.V.M., vol. XXXVII, pp. 1-362).

### III. PARAENETICS
1. On the Form of Prayer (= The Lord’s Prayer, Wimmer, Ratisbon 1920); 2. Seventy-eight Sermons on the Temporal Cycle (vol. XIII, pp. 1-304); 3. Fifty-nine Sermons on the Saints (vol. XIII, pp. 407-634); 4. Homily on Luke 11:27 (von Loe, Bonn 1917); 5. Sermons delivered in the vernacular (noted by Strauch; cf. Meersseman, pp. 128 ff.); 6. Fifty-three Orations on the Sunday Gospels of the Entire Year (vol. XIII, pp. 341-402); 7. Orations on the Sentences (Thoemes, Berlin 1893).
See other writings and previous works in Meersseman, pp. 123-49.

### 4. DOCTRINAL INFLUENCE
The scientific activity exerted by A. M. in the Middle Ages was probably the most powerful of all, not even excepting that of the Angelic Doctor, though the latter’s was more profound and enduring due to its narrower scope. Thomas was a river, Albert a torrent (Mandonnet). Indeed, if one considers the history of any branch of learning, the name of the Cologne scholastic is encountered. The secret of his method, his research, and his success lies in aiming at nature, which is the root and source of life. He sought to find nature in scientific, physical, botanical, and zoological investigations, and thus became a great naturalist. In his studies of man and human works, by considering first nature and its operations, he became a great and eminently practical philosopher, without excluding the highest and most subtle speculation, even in reflections on the ineffable nature of God and the problems of man’s supernatural communion with God. A. probed the essence of the divine nature, and for this reason he became a great theologian. Always intuiting the connection between scientific and speculative inquiry and life, without isolating himself in study, he became an eminent teacher. The vastness of his teaching is reflected in his extensive literary output.

Alongside his importance as a naturalist, A. had the particular mission of introducing Aristotelianism into the philosophical and theological schools of the High Middle Ages. To his contemporaries he opened the treasures of the past, enriching them with the fruits of research, experiments, observations, and investigations in the most varied disciplines. This influence extended to the profane sciences, then called philosophy, and to sacred science, which definitively took the name of theology.

The idea of a scientific encyclopedia, destined for the Christian West, was announced by him in these words: «Nostra intentio est, omnes dictas partes (physicam, metaphysicam, mathematicam) facere Latinis intelligibilis... Intentio nostra in scientia naturali est, satisfacere pro nostra possibilitate fratribus ordinis nostri rogantibus ex pluribus iam praecedentibus annis, ut talem librum de Physica eis componeremus, in quo et scientiam naturalem perfectam haberent et ex quo libros Aristotelis competenter intelligere possent» (Phys., 1. I, col. 1). In the form of a paraphrase, A. expounded the content of the books and doctrines studied, taking occasion in special digressions to set forth his own solutions. For his commentaries he employed the Arabic-Latin translations made by Gerard of Cremona and Michael Scot. By incorporating Aristotelian writings into his own works and correcting them in points opposed to the faith, A. resolved the problem of the acceptance of Aristotle among Western Christians, for whom, with the exception of Logic, the ecclesiastical prohibitions of 1210 and 1215 and the ordinance of 1231 were still in force.

Besides Aristotle, A. drew upon Plato and other Greek, Jewish, and Latin sources. Thus he supplied his contemporaries with an immense body of material and a notable corpus of doctrines, and made possible the task of that master of synthesis, Thomas Aquinas. The service rendered in favor of a Christian Aristotelianism earned A. the title of «philosophorum omnium totius christianitatis soli praeclarissimus» (Henry of Herford). D’Irsay points out the Albertine contribution in giving to the philosophical faculty its specific and autonomous character.

A. did not establish an independent school, particularly in theology, but his doctrine lived on in that of his disciple St. Thomas. However, in the years 1410 and 1411, a member of the philosophical faculty of Paris named Giovanni is noted. This Giovanni, repeatedly mentioned in the records of the philosophical faculty of Paris, appears to have been active during that period.

BIBL.:
See works on the history of the University of Paris; V. 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GIOVANNI DA PARIGI
A theologian and philosopher of the Dominican Order, active in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. Born in Paris, he is also known as *Johannes Quidort* or *John of Paris*. A student of Thomas Aquinas, he taught at the University of Paris and became a prominent figure in the debates surrounding the relationship between Church and State, as well as the nature of the Eucharist.

His most notable work, *De potestate regia et papali* (On Royal and Papal Power), argues for a distinction between spiritual and temporal authority, asserting that the pope’s power is limited to spiritual matters while secular rulers hold independent authority in temporal affairs. This treatise was influential in later political thought, particularly in discussions on the separation of Church and State.

Giovanni also engaged in theological controversies, including the dispute over the *correctorium* of William de la Mare, which criticized certain aspects of Aquinas’s teachings. His own writings, such as *Correctorium corruptorii "Circa"*, defended Thomistic doctrine against these critiques.

BIBL.:
Grabmann M., *Die Werke des Johannes Quidort von Paris*, in *Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters*, vol. XXV, Münster 1922; Tierney B., *Foundations of the Conciliar Theory*, Leiden 1955; Wilks M., *The Problem of Sovereignty in the Later Middle Ages*, Cambridge 1963.

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GIOVANNI DI JANDUN
A philosopher and theologian of the early 14th century, Giovanni di Jandun (also *Jean de Jandun*) was a leading figure in the Averroist movement at the University of Paris. Born in Jandun, France, he studied and later taught at the university, where he became known for his interpretations of Aristotle and Averroes, particularly on the doctrine of the unity of the intellect.

His collaboration with Marsilius of Padua on the *Defensor pacis* (Defender of Peace) marked a significant contribution to medieval political thought. The work challenges papal authority in temporal matters, advocating for the supremacy of secular rulers and the autonomy of the state. Giovanni’s philosophical writings, such as his commentaries on Aristotle’s *De anima* and *Physics*, reflect his commitment to Averroist interpretations, which often brought him into conflict with ecclesiastical authorities.

BIBL.:
Mahoney E. P., *Two Aristotelians of the Italian Renaissance: Nicoletto Vernia and Agostino Nifo*, Aldershot 2000; Gewirth A., *Marsilius of Padua and Medieval Political Philosophy*, New York 1951; Bianchi L., *Il vescovo e i filosofi. La condanna parigina del 1277 e l’evoluzione dell’aristotelismo scolastico*, Bergamo 1990.

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GIOVANNI DI MURRO
A Franciscan theologian of the 14th century, Giovanni di Murro (or *John of Murro*) was active at the University of Paris, where he contributed to the development of Scotist thought. His works, though less widely known than those of Duns Scotus, engage with key theological and philosophical questions of the time, including the nature of divine knowledge, the problem of universals, and the relationship between faith and reason.

Giovanni’s writings often reflect the influence of Scotus’s *voluntarism*, emphasizing the primacy of the divine will in theological matters. His commentary on the *Sentences* of Peter Lombard is among his most significant contributions, offering insights into the Franciscan intellectual tradition.

BIBL.:
Wolter A. B., *The Philosophical Theology of John Duns Scotus*, Ithaca 1990; Courtenay W. J., *Schools and Scholars in Fourteenth-Century England*, Princeton 1987; Maier A., *Ausgehendes Mittelalter*, Rome 1967.

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man, Introducito in opera beati A. M., Bruges 1931. Si attende dall’Albertus Magnus-Institut di Colonia, diretto dal prof. B. Geyer, una edizione degna delle opere del Dottore svevo.

Per l’influsso dottrinale: Sulla dottrina profana d’A. si vedano F. Überweg-B. Geyer, Die patrist. u. scholast. Philosophie, II, Berlino 1928, pp. 400-16; M. Grabmann, I divieti ecclesiastici d’Aristotele sotto Innocenzo III e Gregorio IX, Roma 1941, passim; F. van Steenberghen, Siger de Brabant, d’après ses oeuvres inédites, II, Lovanio 1942, pp. 577-92, 692-717; G. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, II, Baltimore 1931, pp. 934-44; Serta Albertina, in Angelicum, 21 (1944), pp. 41-336; W. De Wulf, Storia della filosofia medievale, II, 2a ed., Firenze 1945, pp. 120-50.

Sulla teologia: M. Grabmann, op. cit., pp. 104-537; id., Mittelalter, Geistesleben, II, Monaco 1936, pp. 324-412; J. M. Vosté, S. A. M. sacrae paginae magister, I-II, Roma 1932-33; D. O. Lottin, Chronique de Théol. médiévale: S. A. le Grand, in Rech. de Théol. anec. et méd., 5 (1933), pp. 423-27; id., Commentaire des Sentences et Somme Théol. d’A. le Grand, in Rech. de Théol. anec. et méd., 8 (1936), pp. 117-53, (cf. D. H. Pouillon, La Summa de bono et le commentaire des Sentences d’A. le Grand, ibid., pp. 203-206).

8. IL CULTORE DELLE SCIENZE NATURALI

La proclamazione di A. a patrono dei cultori delle scienze naturali ha portato ad uno studio più ampio e più accurato del suo metodo e delle sue conquiste, che lo collocano fra i più geniali scienziati del suo tempo. E se è esagerato il dirlo addirittura il fondatore delle scienze sperimentali moderne, certamente ne fu un precursore esimio, che ad esse preparò la via.

A non lasciò inesplorato nessun campo delle scienze naturali, dagli elementi e dai viventi sulla terra agli astri del cielo. Come metodo, batté in breccia il criterio cieco dell’autorità, pure senza negarlo a priori; voleva però che delle asserzioni altrui, fossero anche di Plinio, considerato allora come il massimo naturalista, ci si accertasse nel miglior modo possibile mediante l’osservazione personale e l’esperimento; il quale non deve essere fatto né una volta sola, né in una sola maniera, ma ripetuto variando le circostanze.

Di qui la sua diligenza nell’osservare tutto, nel verificare, nel raccogliere quanti più elementi potevano tornare utili alle sue ricerche. Potè così confutare moltissime teorie in voga, rivelatesi false dalle sue esperienze; determina più di 400 specie di piante; studia i fiori e la loro riproduzione; parla di agn. magnetico, di bussola, di acque termali; ha belle osservazioni sullo zolfo, il potassio, il nitro, il cinabro; sui processi di pietrificazione e della formazione del carbone; scopre il cordone nervoso ven-trale degli artropodi; nella teoria dei «temperamenti» quasi coincide con i «tipi costituzionali», che ci sono oggi delineati nella biotipologia, ecc.

Nor should the scientist, according to A., halt at observed and collected facts; he must rather ascend to their most intimate causes and then grasp the finality inherent in every nature. For the study of nature, even when pursued down to the minutest details, cannot provide an adequate solution to the great problems nor answer all the questions: “why do things, taken singly and all together, present themselves in the form and order that appear to us most fitting and best for them?” It is necessary, therefore, to ascend to God, who created them thus and so in conformity with His infinite wisdom; every thing proceeds from Him according to an ordered design, and is what it is because in this way it is in harmony with the finality of the universe.

It has been said that A. is a slavish commentator of Aristotle. Certainly he follows him step by step, but enriches him with new observations, new interpretations, and additions; nor does he hesitate to depart from him when necessary. In his work there are still gaps and at times naïve credulities, based on the accounts of those he consulted; and while he denies credence to Pliny, he lends it instead to persons he believes dead but are not, for example in certain phenomena and facts of astronomy, hunting, fishing, and reproduction. Likewise, the “experimental method”

must be understood as the age permitted; yet to A. must be conceded the unquestionable merit of having proclaimed and practised, albeit with some errors, a sound method of inquiry and study. — See Pl. LVI.