RATIO STUDIORUM. - It is the educational and pedagogical code of the Society of Jesus, composed in the 16th century and in part still in force, to govern the teaching activity of the Order from the higher faculties of theology and philosophy down to the first humanistic classes.
I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY
St. Ignatius initially excluded teaching from the activity of the Order, but he wanted the young candidates to precede their ecclesiastical studies with thorough literary studies of Latin and Greek. This was the rule for the colleges reserved for students of the Society and, from 1546 (Gandia) and 1548 (Messina), also for the colleges open to all in the cities that vied in offering them. St. Ignatius wanted to give them an organization and a prototype. The latter was provided by the Collegio Romano (1551 for letters, 1553 for philosophy and theology); the former, after a
The original plan of complete organization, of which the Constitutiones collegiorum of the secretary G. A. de Polanco (Mon. Hist. S. J. Mon. Paedagogica, Madrid 1901) are an indication, could not be realized for lack of experience, and had its guiding principles gathered in the 4th part of the Constitutions (first draft 1550, final 1555). These principles can be reduced methodologically to the adoption of the Parisian method (division into classes, programs, exercises, guidance of the teacher) and of humanistic ideals according to the needs of the times, for literary studies, and of the scholastic method with appropriate updatings for the ecclesiastical sciences. Pedagogically it sought to achieve a harmonious development of intellectual and moral education, drawing resources from the human and spiritual means of religion; while in the ideal order (projects for a university) theology remained the queen of the sciences as the supreme faculty toward which the inferior ones were directed or from which the collateral ones received their norm. Gir. Nadal at Messina and in various colleges of Europe, Giac. Ledesma at the Roman College, with various projects, and delegates of the generals with particular ordinances in the provinces, dealt with it. After some directives of Borgia (1569), Claudio Acquaviva, on the commission of his electors, prepared from 1581 a plan for ordering studies. Two commissions prepared for 1586 the first R. s. in two parts, one on the norms to be observed in theology concerning disputable questions, the second of concrete proposals for the ordering and the programs of the classes. Sent for examination to the provinces, on the basis of the observations a second, more extensive R., more theoretical and accompanied also by models of lessons for the humanistic schools, was compiled in 1591. This was applied for three years and the results and suggestions requested by experience were transmitted to Rome. After new examinations a new, shorter text was prepared in the form of rules; printed in 1599, it was promulgated with the force of law for all the colleges of the Order. It was the result of 50 years of teaching throughout Europe, with the most distinguished men of the Order collaborating on it, such as Bellarmine, Suárez, Azor, Benci, Tursellini, Tucci.
It remained in force until the suppression (1773) with some partial adaptation, undergoing the attack of Enlightenment philosophy and of the new educational trends in the 18th century. After the Order was restored in 1814 and its teaching activity resumed, the R. was modified by the general G. F. Roothaan, who promulgated it in 1832. It was valid above all for ecclesiastical studies, while for literary ones methods and programs imposed by the governments of the various nations had to be adopted, remaining faithful, as far as possible, to the ancient animating principles. Further modifications were made by the succeeding generals, while today a new R. is under study on the basis of the pontifical constitution Deva scientiarum Dominus.
II. COMPOSITION OF THE RATIO STUDIORUM
The R. of 1599, not being a theoretical treatise, was presented in the form of rules for those who were to be concerned with teaching. According to the centralized method of government, teaching is subject in the individual provinces to the Provincial. His rules concern overall government, the formation of professors, supervision of doctrine; methods, teaching aids, holidays, etc. In the various colleges the Rector has responsibility for the schools (Rule of the Rector) and is assisted by a Prefect of Studies (Rule of the Prefect of Studies) for the practical running of the schools. General rules common to all professors of the higher faculties, and in particular to professors of Sacred Scripture, of Hebrew, of scholastic theology, of cases of conscience (moral theology), of philosophy, of moral philosophy, of mathematics. Literary studies are under the direction of their own prefect of the lower studies, with special norms for written examinations and prizes. The professors have common rules, and special rules are then given to the professors of rhetoric, humanities and of the three grammar classes. There follow rules for the beadles, the external pupils and for the various academies. For each body of these rules an initial paragraph fixes their spiritual, pedagogical and didactic purposes, and particular prescriptions on programs, methods, etc. follow.
III. PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Acquaviva did not intend to produce a theoretical work, nor to be an innovator. In fact the Jesuits had theoretical principles and did innovate in the field of teaching and education. For the literary part they adopted the humanistic ideal as their own, taking over whatever positive the new trends had produced in Italy and abroad. They adhered to the Parisian method of classes with fixed programs and established goals to be reached, but for humanities and rhetoric they left the professor personal initiative, moderating the excesses of the Italian manner. The R. sought to organize literary teaching by giving three years to grammar, one to humanities, one to rhetoric; distributing philosophy over three years with studies of mathematics and physics; theology over four, and accompanying scholasticism with the Bible, Hebrew and cases of conscience. It sought to give a unified direction and subordinated to Latin the Greek, the vernacular language, history and geography, as contributions to a better understanding of the authors; it sought to take hold of all the faculties of man, availing itself especially for adolescents of the agonistic sense of emulation, of prizes, and it developed the art of speaking with public recitations in prose and verse and with theatrical performances that rose to very high importance; it sought to look after the best through the academies and the start of personal study and composition, it aimed at the formation of characters and at a convinced Christian life through the Marian Congregations, which soon became the soul of the colleges. The professor, for the most part the only one in each class, became the driving force of intellectual and moral life. With the prelection held in Latin he introduced them to the knowledge of grammar and then of the authors, among whom Cicero stood foremost, the complete expression of the oratorical ideal; with daily and weekly practical exercises he tested their progress; with compositions he spurred them to personal work based on the canon of imitation of the classics, while samples of profit were had in public disputations, declamations and academies. Results were seen in the continuous demand for colleges and in the pre-eminent position of the Jesuits in teaching until the French Revolution. Accusations and battles were waged against the narrowness of the teachings in comparison with the broadening of studies and of general culture, and against the pedagogy especially on account of emulation, prizes and punishments. The fact is that the R., limited as every human thing is, had to adapt itself to new needs, not remaining fixed on the sixteenth-century ideal; it is not based exclusively on emulation or interest and was very mild in punishments. In the face of an encyclopedic school it gives an example of a sound deepening and of serious preparation for life and is based on a knowledge of man that makes it promote a humanistic type that is always timely.
BBL.: edd.: R. atque institutio s., Rome 1586, ibid. 1591, Naples 1599; G. M. Pachtler, R. S. et Institut. scholast. per Germanium olim vigentes, 4 vols., Berlin 1887-94 (the best ed. with the three
R. and other documents); Monum. Paedagogica S. J., Madrid 1901; M. Barbera, La R. s. e la IV Parte delle Costituz. della C.d.G., Padua 1942, Opere; A. Schimberg, L'éducation morale dans les Collèges de la C.d.J. en France sous l'Ancien Régime, Paris 1913; G. B. Herman, La pédagogie des Jésuites au XVIe siècle, Louvain 1914; E. Boeminghaus, Geist der Gesellschaft Jesu und ihr pädagogisches Werk, Feldkirch 1931; A. Farrell, The Jesuit Code of liberal Education, Development and scope of the R. S., Milwaukee 1938; P. de Leturia, De Constitutionibus Collegiorum S. J., J. A. de Polanco ac de eorum influus in Constit. S. J., in Arch. Hist. S. J., 7 (1938), pp. 1-30; id., Come la Compagnia di G. divenne Ordine insegnante, in Gregorianum, 12 (1940), pp. 350-82; J. Schröter, Die Erziehung in den Jesuiteninternaten des 16. Jahrh., Freiburg im Br. 1940; A. Ferrua, Gli studi del latino e la Compagnia di Gesù, in Il 4e centen. della costituzione della C. di Gesù, Milan 1941, pp. 47-63; P. Bailly, Collige, in Delatres, Les établissements des Jésuites en France, I. Bruges 1949, coll. 1394-1503.
Angelo Martini