DOCTOR. – In the early period at the University of Bologna, the term was applied to anyone authorized to teach, and in this sense the word *doctor* was used interchangeably with *magister* and *dominus*.
Later, when the university organized itself around competitive examinations for professorial chairs, the doctorate became an academic degree. At that point, doctors conferred the degree upon a candidate who had passed the examinations of the *examen* (private examination) and the *conventus* (public examination). The first took place in the chamber of the archdeacon, where the *doctor praesentator* discussed the thesis read by the candidate and, on the assigned *puncta*, the other doctors could argue with the texts indicated. From this examination the candidate emerged as *licentiatus*. The second examination took place in the cathedral church, with the participation of the scholars. The candidate delivered a discourse and read a thesis on law. The archdeacon or the appointed doctor then delivered a discourse to proclaim the candidate *doctor*.
Subsequently, the presenting doctors bestowed upon him the insignia: the book, the ring, and the doctoral diploma. Doctors of law were either in Roman law or canon law, or in both (*in utroque iure*).
In the 13th century, sources mention doctors in other disciplines: *doctores medicinae* or *physicae*, *grammaticae*, *logicae*, *philosophiae*, and *aliorum artium*.
Those who taught without being doctors acquired the title of bachelor (*bachalarius*), which at first was not an academic degree conferred upon them.
SURNAMES ATTRIBUTED TO THE MOST CELEBRATED DOCTORS. – It was especially in the Middle Ages that the most esteemed doctors were distinguished by epithets indicating their principal characteristic, derived from their method, the loftiness, or the acuteness of their teaching. Below is a list of these epithets in alphabetical order, divided into two classes:
1. Doctors in Theology:
- *Abstractionum* – Francesco Mayron (d. 1325 or 1327).
- *Acutissimus* – Sixtus IV (d. 1484).
- *Acutus* – Gabriel Vásquez (d. 1604).
- *Amoenus* – Robert Cowton (d. 1340).
- *Authenticus* – Gregory of Rimini (d. 1358).
- *Averroista et philosophiae parens* – Urbanus (d. 1403).
- *Beatus et fundatissimus* – Giles of Rome (d. 1316).
- *Bonus* – Walter Brinkley (d. 1370).
- *Christianus* – Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464).
- *Clarus* – Ludovico da Montesinos (d. 1621).
- *Clarus ac subtilis* – Denis of Cîteaux (d. 15th c.).
- *Collectivus* – Landolfo Caracciolo (d. 1351).
- *Columna doctorum* – William of Champeaux (d. 1121).
- *Contradictionum* – John Wessel (d. 1489).
- *Divinus, Ecstaticus* – John Ruysbroeck (d. 1381).
- *Doctor doctorum-Scholasticus* – Anselm of Laon (d. 1117).
- *Dulcifluus* – Antonio Andreu (d. 1320).
- *Ecstaticus* – Denis the Carthusian (d. 1471).
- *Eminens* – St. John of Matha (d. 1213).
- *Emporium theologiae* – Lorenzo Gervais (d. 1483).
- *Excellentissimus* – Antonio Corsetti (d. 1503).
- *Eximius* – Francisco Suárez (d. 1617).
- *Facundus* – Peter Auriol (d. 1322).
- *Famosissimus* – Peter of Candia (d. 1426).
- *Famosus* – Bertrand de Turre (d. 1332).
- *Fertilissimus* – Francesco di Candia (15th c.).
- *Flos mundi* – Maurice O'Fihely (d. 1513).
- *Fundamentalis* – John Faber of Bordeaux (d. 1350).
- *Fundatus* – William of Ware (d. 1270).
- *Illibatus* – Alessandro Alamannico (15th c.).
- *Illuminatus* – Ramon Llull (d. 1315).
2. Doctors in Law:
- *Aristotelis anima* – Giovanni Dondi (d. 1380).
- *Doctor a doctoribus* – Antonio Francesco (d. 1520).
- *Fons canonum* – Giovanni d’Andrea (d. 1348).
- *Fontes iuris utriusque* – Henry of Susa (Hostiensis; d. 1267–81).
- *Lucerna iuris* – Baldo degli Ubaldi (d. 1400).
- *Lucerna iuris pontificii* – Nicholas de Tudeschis (d. 1455).
- *Lumen iuris* – Clement IV (d. 1268).
- *Lumen legum* – Irnerius (12th c.).
- *Memoriosissimus* – Ludovico Pontano (d. 1439).
- *Monarchia iuris* – Bartolomeo da Saliceto (d. 1412).
- *Os aureum* – Bulgarus (d. 1166).
- *Pacificus* (Profecus) – Nicholas Bonet (d. 1360).
- *Pater Decretalium* – Gregory IX (d. 1241).
- *Pater et organum veritatis* – Innocent IV (d. 1254).
- *Pater iuris* – Innocent III (d. 1216).
- *Pater peritorum* – Pierre de Belleperche (d. 1307).
- *Planus ac perspicuus* – Walter Burleigh (d. 1337).
- *Princeps subtilitatum* – Francesco Accolti (d. 1486).
- *Speculator* – William Durandus (d. 1296).
- *Speculum iuris* – Bartolus of Sassoferrato (d. 1359).
- *Stabilis* – Benedetto Raymond (d. 1440).
- *Stabilis* – Filippo Corneo (d. 1462).
- *Verus* – Tommaso Dotto (d. 1441).