LUKE, Evangelist, Saint. - Author of the third Gospel (in the order of the Vulgate) and of the Acts of the Apostles (v.).
I. HIS LIFE
He was born in Antioch in Syria (Eusebius, Jerome), into a pagan family (Col. 4:10-11). He practiced the profession of physician (Col. 4:14).
His writings attest that he is not unfamiliar with technical vocabulary (A. Harnack, Lukas, der Arzt, Leipzig 1906, pp. 122-37): but he always uses it with discretion. One notices the exactness of his clinical observation: his diagnosis is clear (Lk. 4:38); he perfectly characterizes functional disorders (ibid. 22:14); he does not omit to indicate, whenever paired organs are involved, which side is affected by the ailment (ibid. 6:12; 22:50); he clearly distinguishes illness from diabolical possession, even in cases where they are simultaneous (D. Bardet, St Luc médecin et navigateur, in Bulletin de la Société St-Luc, 1949, p. 107 ff.). One realizes that this physician is a cultured man of letters who reads not only medical writings but also the great ancient authors, especially the historians.
In 49 or 50 he accompanies the apostle Paul on his second missionary journey from Troas to Philippi
(Acts 16:10-40). Around 57 or 58 he again follows Paul from Philippi to Jerusalem, during the third apostolic journey (Acts 21:1-17). He is present at the arrest and imprisonment of Paul (Acts 21:18-26:32). Then, when the prisoner is transferred from Caesarea to Rome, L. accompanies him (Acts 27:22-28:29). He is at Paul's side, though perhaps not continuously, at the time of the two Roman imprisonments (Col. 4:24; Phil. 24; II Tim. 4:11).
After the death of Paul, L. leaves Rome. Then all trace of him is lost. It is not known what is certain in the indications that fix his ministry in Achaia (St. Gregory of Nazianzus), his prolonged stay in Boeotia (anonymous prologues), his death in the Thebaid (Symeon Metaphrastes). Late and contestable texts (the oldest is by Theodore the Lector, who wrote in 530: cf. C. Henze, Lukas der Muttergottesmaler, Louvain, 1948) attribute to L. an icon of the Mother of God. But the true portrait of Mary made by L. is found in the account of the infancy gospel, based on the data communicated by the Virgin-Mother. L. is symbolized in iconography by the ox, because his Gospel begins at the moment of the offering of sacrifice in the Temple. St. L. is venerated by the Church as a martyr (cf. Martyr. Romanum, p. 481). Feast on October 18.
II. THE THIRD GOSPEL
According to unanimous tradition (Irenaeus, Tertullian, the Muratorian fragment, etc.), the third Gospel is attributed to St. Luke. The internal data confirm this assertion. It is easily noted that the author is a Christian coming from the gentiles, whose concerns go beyond the problems of Israel's legalism and ritualism, and who regards with satisfaction the universalist character of the Redemption. He reflects a Pauline mentality, which fits perfectly a man who had, like Luke, close and frequent relations with the Apostle of the gentiles. The style reveals a physician and a man of letters, which confirms the indications of the ecclesiastical authors concerning Luke.
Neither the place nor the date of composition can be established with certainty. It is certain, however, that the third Gospel is earlier than the book of the Acts of the Apostles (ca. 63), which forms the second volume of the history of salvation, dedicated, like the third Gospel, to the "most excellent" Theophilus. This Gospel is later than those of Mark, which it visibly uses, and of Matthew, which it presupposes. This brings us back to the years 60-63. It seems that Luke wrote his work in Rome, as some manuscript subscriptions note (the opinion current today), or in Caesarea (some moderns): but not in Achaia (anonymous prologues, Jerome) nor in Alexandria (Syriac documents).
Luke addresses his work to Theophilus, who perhaps supported the book and covered its expenses, and, through him, to certain Christians of pagan descent. He therefore frequently omits what is specifically Jewish, as the comparison with the parallel passages of Mark shows. If he mentions customs unknown to his readers, he explains them. He interprets on occasion an Aramaic term (Lk. 6:15) and clarifies obscure Semitic expressions (ibid. 21:20-24: the siege and capture of Jerusalem by the Gentiles replace "the abomination [v.] of desolation"). Messianism is not considered in its national perspectives, but in its worldwide repercussion. Luke relates with satisfaction what is particularly favorable to the Gentiles (Lk. 1:1-10; 17:11-19). He shows consideration for the Roman authorities (ibid. 2:1-2; 3:1; 7:2-9).
He has no polemical purpose in view, but intends to show in Jesus the Savior of all men, without distinction of race, through the mystery of the Cross. In order to bring this teaching clearly to light, he lets the facts speak: this is the reason why his work will be first of all a history of salvation presented in literary form. This history will serve to strengthen the faith of his readers (Lk. 1:3-4).
Luke relies on solid information. He consulted written documents and accounts transmitted orally. His dependence on Mark is manifest in the so-called "Marcan sections" (Lk. 4:31-6:19; 8:4-9:50; 18:15-21:38). But even while using the Gospel of Mark, Luke will preserve his own personal manner of composition. It has been observed (E. Osty [v. bibl.], pp. 10-16) that Luke makes cuts in Mark's narrative (out of literary concern, delicacy and religious reverence), additions, retouchings (for the same reasons and also to emphasize his favorite themes: praise, prayer, the sufferings of Christ, universalism, the Holy Spirit, poverty and asceticism), transpositions (for verisimilitude, symbolism, literary order or logical parallels) and introduces insinuations (e.g., about the nocturnal character of the Transfiguration: Lk. 9:28-37).
It may be supposed that Luke treated with the same elasticity and freedom the fragments of the Gospel of Matthew (or the documents that served as their basis) which, in one form or another, seem to have come to his knowledge. The prologue (Lk. 1:1-4) alludes to fragmentary essays of a biography of Jesus, which were not lacking in value and which Luke consulted before composing his own work.
Luke drew, at least mediately, on the treasury of Mary's memories (Lk. 2:19, 51). He had the possibility of receiving precious information coming from Johannine circles (ibid. 9:54), from Peter (ibid. 22:8), from Cleophas (ibid. 24:18), from the deacon Philip (Acts 21:8), particularly well informed about what concerned Samaria (Acts 8:5-8; Lk. 9:52-56; 17:11-19). The pious women (Lk. 8:2-3; 23:55), Martha and Mary (ibid. 10:38) could inform him of episodes that especially concerned them. Manaen, Herod's childhood friend (Acts 13:1), perhaps reported to him the appearance of Jesus before the tetrarch (Lk. 23:7-12).
The composition of the third Gospel is very characteristic. The work comprises a prologue (1:1-4), the Gospel of the infancy (1:5-2:52), then the public life of Jesus within the framework in four parts, traditional in oral catechesis: ministry of the Precursor (3:1-4:13), activity of Jesus in Galilee (4:14-9:50), the journey up to Jerusalem (9:51-19:27), the end in Jerusalem (19:28-24:53).
The Gospel of the infancy has as its purpose to establish the heavenly origin of the Savior. This account, whose flavor is very Aramaic and whose religious depth is to be noted, is constructed in the form of a double parallel between John the Baptist and Jesus: the first is constituted by the two Annunciations (1:5-25 and 26-38), followed by the account of the Visitation (39-56); the second compares the two nativities and summarizes the infancy of John, in the desert, and of Jesus, at Nazareth (1:57-80 and 2:1-52). Although they agree on the essential points, the accounts of Luke and Matthew almost never agree in the choice of episodes. The perspectives of the two Evangelists are in fact very different: Matthew concentrates his account around oracles of the Old Testament, the fulfillment of which, in the infancy of the Savior, establishes his messiahship and his divinity. Luke brings the Virgin Mary to the fore, Matthew places Joseph in a vivid light.
For the account of the public life, Luke proceeds as follows: he inserted the sections that are particular to him or that come to him from other sources of information, before or after the Marcan sections or between them. If he makes additions to Mark, he does not take all of Mark, of whom he omits entire passages that do not answer his purpose (e.g., Mk. 6:45-8:26).
The Galilean ministry is presented thus: up to the choice of the Twelve (4:14-6:11), Jesus preaches in the synagogues or among sympathetic crowds, but already the Pharisees take the position of adversaries. Between the choice of the Twelve and their first mission (6:12-8:56), the preaching of Jesus and his miracles provoke popular enthusiasm. From the first mission of the Twelve, we are at the apogee of the Galilean ministry (9:1-50): multiplication of the loaves, confession of Peter, transfiguration. This section contains few discourses. It comprises a great number of deliberately approximate, imprecise and vague formulas (5:12, 17; 9:28). The geographical perspective is conventional, inasmuch as the author is concerned to eliminate successively from his account the Galilean cities whose location seems to him sufficiently specified, and does not hesitate before transpositions, groupings of events, or silence about the localization if he judges it necessary. In this way there pass before the reader's eyes Nazareth (4:16-30), Capernaum (4:31-7:10) and Nain (7:11-18).
After this phase in Galilee, Luke describes the journey of Jesus toward Jerusalem, in a long section where one can find the traces of three successive journeys toward the Holy City (Lk. 9:51-13:21; 13:22-17:10; 17:11-19:46). But he remains very discreet about topography and chronology, whose importance should not be exaggerated here. Luke, who rejoins Mark only at ch. 18:15, has gathered in this section, which is particular to him, the principal core of Jesus' doctrinal teaching. The discourses are therefore very abundant, the parables notable: the good Samaritan, the prodigal son, the wicked rich man, the Pharisee and the publican, etc. The action is reduced to a minimum, as is the external setting. But by placing this whole complex "under the sign of Jerusalem" and in the context of an ascent toward the Passion, Luke gave a sharp dynamism to this section of his Gospel.
In Jerusalem, Luke follows Mark very closely up to the celebration of the Supper. He then takes up greater originality again. He is the only one who speaks of the sweat of blood in the garden of agony (Luke 22:43-44), and of the pilgrims of Emmaus (ibid. 24:13-35). He says nothing about the appearances in Galilee. This stems from the general development of his narrative, which is entirely oriented toward Jerusalem: the third Gospel goes from Galilee, through Samaria, to Jerusalem; the Acts will show the Apostles setting out from Jerusalem to evangelize Samaria, then the whole universe.
The story of Jesus has therefore been related in a literary form. The linking to the facts of profane history is carried out "from the beginning" (Luke 1:5, 26; 2:1-4; 3:1-2). Subsequently the psychological reactions of Christ's audience before the preaching of the word are brought into relief. Luke's procedures of composition (groupings of a literary or doctrinal order) bring out the scope of the message, without compromising in any way the historical solidity of the information and of the testimony.
Attempts were made to contest the authenticity of certain passages of Luke's Gospel. Nothing authorizes suspicion regarding the infancy gospel, which all the witnesses of the text present, and which Marcion had wanted to suppress for tendentious reasons. The sweat of blood (Luke 22:43-44) seemed unworthy of the Savior; the Arians abused this text in their discussions. This may explain its absence from certain witnesses, such as A, B, R, T, W; but it is found in the body of other manuscripts, in Justin and Irenaeus. Its primitive authenticity must be maintained.
The doctrinal characteristics of the third Gospel are the insistence on the universality of salvation, the Savior's mercy toward sinners, prayer, joy, the necessity of renunciation. Of Christ, Son of Man and Son of God, Lord and Savior,
Luke has presented an unforgettable image. He exalted in his work the Kingdom and the Sovereignty of God.
Luke writes in a Greek that is not homogeneous: almost classical in the prologue, full of Aramaisms in the infancy Gospel, more conforming to Hellenistic Greek and to the style of the Septuagint in the body of the Gospel, but not without a certain number of expressions coming from classical Greek. The work is of perfect taste and reveals in its author a great delicacy of soul.
The Biblical Commission, in its reply of June 26, 1912, provided some clarifications on the authenticity of the infancy Gospel and of the passage on the sweat of blood (no. 3), on the composition of Luke's Gospel after that of Matthew and Mark (no. 5), on the date of composition: before the destruction of Jerusalem (no. 6), before the Acts and therefore before the end of the Pauline imprisonment of which Acts 28:30-31 speaks (no. 7), on the origins (no. 8) and on the historical value (no. 9; cf. Enchiridion Biblicum, Rome 1927, nos. 410-16).
Bibliography18 works
Luigi Soubigou
ICONOGRAPHY
He is usually depicted with a mature, almost elderly appearance, holding the Gospel in his hand; typically beside him is a winged bull, his symbol. Considered since the 6th century a painter of the image of the Madonna, St. Luke is sometimes seen represented with a portrait of the Virgin in his hands. Sometimes he is also depicted in the act of painting the Madonna, who appears to him with the Child Jesus in her arms. Thus he is presented in an altarpiece attributed to Jan van Eyck in the Pinakothek of Munich in Bavaria, copies or replicas of which are found in the Museums of Vienna, Nuremberg and the Hermitage of St. Petersburg. The same scene is also seen in a painting traditionally attributed to Raphael in the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. Giorgio Vasari also painted him in the Chapel of the confraternity of St. Luke near the cloister of the Santissima Annunziata in Florence.
The oldest iconographic depiction of St. Luke known so far dates back to the 7th century and is found in the catacombs of Commodilla near Rome, where the Saint has his head surrounded by a halo in which his name is read; he is depicted there in a white tunic with a scroll and a bag with surgical instruments. In the 12th century he is depicted in the mosaics of the Palatine Chapel in Palermo and in the 13th century in those of the apse of the basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls in Rome, where he stands among the four Saints who surround the throne of Christ. Among the 15th-century depictions of St. Luke one notes the statue of the Florentine Cathedral, a masterpiece by Nanni di Banco, and the tempera panel by Benedetto Bonfigli in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, in which the Saint is writing his Gospel. - See pl. CXI.
Bibliography
Witold Wehr