Shaykh al-Islām

SHAJH al-ISLAM. – One of the many Islamic appellations (alqāb) that appeared around the middle of the 4th century A.H. (= 10th century A.D.) and that means, approximately, “prince of islām.” At first applied as a simple honorific title to ‘ulamā’ and mystics of particular learning, it became increasingly specialized in the field of jurists and was attributed to those mufti whose fatwā enjoyed particular authority. In the Ottoman Empire, S. al-I. was the title given to the mufti of Istanbul, who attained a politico-religious importance unknown in other Islamic states.

The importance of S. al-I. was consolidated especially during the time of Sultans Selim I (d. 1520) and Solimano I

(phot. Enc. Catt.)
SFRAGISTICA — Function of the papal lead seal (bull). Vatican, Apostolic Palace.

(d. 1566) when the mufti of Istanbul obtained administrative supremacy over all the 'ulamā' of the Empire. Some Orientalists have attributed this hierarchical organization of the religious jurists, headed by the S. al-I.—which does not correspond to Islamic tradition, which knows no specialized “clergy”—to influences from the Christian episcopal organization present in the Ottoman Empire, under the authority of the ecumenical patriarch. In any case, it was the Sultan who had the power to appoint and dismiss the S. al-I. In the ceremonial order he came immediately after the Grand Vizier and, in addition to the aforementioned title, bore other pompous honorific appellations, such as, for example, “the most learned of the learned,” “sea of the sciences,” etc. He usually wore a white qaftān and a turban adorned with a gold band. Unlike the other high Ottoman officials, who were generally converted former Christians, the muftis and consequently the S. al-I. belonged to old Muslim families and, before attaining high office, followed regular courses of study in the madrasa (religious schools), passing through all the ranks of the religious judiciary before reaching supreme authority. Gradually, an entire organization of schools, academic degrees, and canonical tribunals was formed, all under the authority of the S. al-I.

The principal task of the S. al-I. was to issue fatwā on questions of general public interest: examples include the historic fatwā authorizing the war against Egypt (1516), the war against Venice (1570), the drinking of coffee (which shortly beforehand had been considered unlawful by a fatwā of a previous S. al-I.), and the establishment of printing presses (1727), etc. Although the S. al-I. were generally readily obedient to the wishes of their rulers, the Sultans, there were nevertheless some courageous “non licet” pronouncements, such as the fatwā of Abā 's-Su'ūd (d. 1574) against the idea of forcibly converting all Christians, and that of Es'ad Effendi against the massacres of Ottoman princes. The institution of the S. al-I., which in the final period of its existence had served to support the most reactionary policies of the Ottoman sultans, was abolished in 1922 by the Turkish Republic. Islamic modernists showed themselves decidedly opposed to the institution of the S. al-I., which they considered contrary to the principles of genuine islām. At present, in the various Islamic states, the functions of the S. al-I. are exercised in part by the mufti of the capital or, as in Egypt, by the S. of al-Azhar, but without that hierarchical organization characteristic of the Ottoman Empire. In Pa-

Pakistan (v.), for example, the chief of the muftis still habitually bears the title of S. al-I.