CARMELITES. — A religious order that takes its name from Mount Carmel in Palestine, where in the 12th century the historical existence of a group of ascetics is attested. To these, Albert of Vercelli (q.v.), Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, gave the rule in 1208–1209, which the Order still professes.
I. CARMELITES OF THE ANCIENT OBSERVANCE
The rule was approved by Honorius III in 1226, and with some mitigations—especially regarding abstinence from meat—by Innocent IV in 1248. Further mitigations were granted by Pius II, Eugene IV, and Sixtus IV. A pious tradition holds that the Order descends from the prophet Elijah, whose mission was continued by his disciple Elisha and the “sons of the prophets” until the advent of Christianity, to which they would have adhered, becoming co-workers in the evangelical preaching and cultivating on Carmel the most refined forms of asceticism along with the cult of the Virgin Mother, for whom they are said to have built a temple near Elijah’s spring. They lived an eremitical life in various groupings or “lauras,” and were severely tested by the Persian invasion in the 7th century and the subsequent Muslim conquest. Their institution survived on Carmel due to the veneration of the Muslims for the prophet Elijah; and at the time of the Crusades, it grew through the influx of Western pilgrims and knights. This Carmelite tradition was strongly contested in the 17th century by the Bollandist Fr. Papebroch (Acta SS. Aprilis, II, Antwerp 1668, pp. 764–99). It should be noted, however, that further studies have helped to substantiate it at least in its broad outlines, enriching the polemical literature of the 17th century, in which defenders of the Carmelites included the Jesuit Fr. Raynaud. Some have even attempted a full vindication of the tradition itself (Fr. Fiorenzo del Bambin Gesù: *Il monte Carmelo*, Cremona 1930). More recent criticism (B. Zimmermann, G. Wessels, B. Xiberta) has approached the problem by adopting a realistic criterion regarding the incontestable prophetic spirit of the Order, namely a moral paternity of the prophet, inasmuch as the religious, living on the mountain that was the theater of his lofty spirituality, patterned their lives upon his example.After the approval of Honorius III in 1226, the Order spread along the Mediterranean and into the interior of Syria; but it did not enjoy a tranquil existence due to the frequent conflicts between Christians and Muslims, who, after their victories, attacked Carmel and killed the survivors. The Order definitively abandoned Palestine; in fact, from the beginning of the 13th century we find Carmelites in various European countries. In 1240, the first General Chapter of the West was held at Aylesford, from which Alan of Brittany was elected prior. In 1245, he was succeeded by St. Simon Stock (q.v.), to whom is owed the foundation of convents in major university centers: Cambridge, Oxford, Bologna, and Paris. Contemplative life was enriched by initiatives of active life; but this displeased those who, in the urban foundations, saw the eremitical spirit decline. This attitude would persist for several more centuries, giving rise to various reforms, such as the Mantuan (15th century), the Touraine (17th century), that of Santa Maria della Scala (18th century), and others of lesser note—each a focus of holiness upon which the reform of St. Teresa of Jesus (q.v.) was vigorously asserted, aided by St. John of the Cross (q.v.), and which in 1593 constituted itself as an autonomous Order (see below: Discalced Carmelites).
In their studies, the Carmelites found already established the great schools whose most prominent representatives they followed: Henry of Ghent at Oxford, Godfrey of Fontaines in Paris. Great fame was attained by Gerard of Bologna (1317), Siberto of Bek (1322), Guido Terrena (1342), John Baconthorp (1346), and Michael of Bologna (1416). Notable controversialists were John Cunningham and Thomas Nester (the Waldensian) against the Wickliffites; Everard Billich, Andrew Stoss, Paul Elia, and Lawrence Laureto against the Protestants. In the 17th century, Paul Foscarini defended the orthodoxy of Galileo; in the 18th century, Elias Astorino distinguished himself as an apologist and scholar; in the 19th century, Augustine Molin, P. Perricone, and Fr. Mazzetti. Illustrious saints were Angelo of Licata (13th century), Albert of Sicily (14th century), Andrew Corsini (14th century), Bl. Augustine Mazzinghi (15th century), Bl. John Soreth (15th century), and St. Mary Magdalene de’ Pazzi. The large number of religious who died in a reputation of holiness—among them Michael of St. Augustine, John of St. Samson, Angelo de Paolis, Jerome Terzo, Andrew Statella—bear witness to the mystical fervor of the Order, which suffered severe losses during the Protestant Reformation. The religious provinces of Bohemia, Saxony, Dacia, Ireland, and Scotland were devastated; in England, under Henry VIII, 50 convents were suppressed and 1,500 religious were executed, dispersed, or killed; very many were the martyrs of Calvinist fury in France and of the Red Fury in Spain in 1936. In compensation, Italy was enriched in that period with 40 convents. The Carmelites contributed to the work of the Council of Trent with the generals Andeth and De Rossi and a good number of able theologians. At present (1949), the Order numbers 2,734 religious. Its reorganization has happily resumed in the last fifty years, with very encouraging results. The nuns, or Second Order, instituted under Nicholas V, soon grew greatly in number and today number about a thousand. The Third Order was instituted under St. Simon Stock and has many affiliates.
It has also assumed a regular form with institutes of active life for women: 2 in Spain, 3 in Italy, and 2 in North America. A characteristic devotion is that of the scapular, said to have been given to St. Simon Stock by the Virgin as a sign of her special protection for those who wear II. The feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel is celebrated everywhere with popular solemnity in a beneficial climate of joy, as is that of the “Madonna de noantri” in Rome (Trastevere) and that of Naples with the spectacular “fire” of the classic bell tower. In the liturgy, the Carmelites follow the rite of St. Siberto of Bek.
II. DISCALCED CARMELITES
They owe their origin to the reform of the Carmelite Order carried out by St. Teresa of Jesus together with St. John of the Cross.The first convent was opened at Duruelo in 1568, a second at Pastrana (1569). From these, the reform spread rapidly throughout Spain, so that at the death of St. Teresa (1582) there were 17 monasteries of reformed nuns and 15 convents of friars (called *Fratres primitiae observantiae*, and later *Fratres Discalceati*), all placed under the jurisdiction of the Carmelite General, but forming (from 1580) their own province. As the number of convents increased, in 1593 they obtained complete autonomy with the right to elect their own general.
After some of these religious were transferred to Italy and the first convents were founded in Genoa (1584) and Rome (1597), they were, by apostolic authority on 13 November 1600, separated from the Spanish branch and constituted as their own Congregation, called the Italian Congregation, or of St. Elijah, with its own general and constitutions.
The Congregation of Spain (known as that of St Joseph) originally comprised only Spain, Portugal, and Mexico, while that of Italy included France, Belgium, Germany, and Poland.
From almost the very beginning, the Italian Congregation had missionaries in Persia (from 1608), in India: in the Great Mogul and Sindh (1619) and in Malabar (1663), in Mesopotamia (1623), in Syria (1627), in England (1614), in Holland (1648), in Morocco (1685), and in China (1720).
During the great upheaval that scattered all religious orders at the time of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, all the convents of the Italian Congregation were first suppressed, and then, in 1835, those of the Spanish Congregation as well. Once the latter had revived, in 1875 it was reunited with the restored Italian Congregation, so that since that time there has existed only one Order of Discalced Carmelites, which currently has 25 provinces and 4 quasi-provinces with 295 friaries and about 3,000 religious; 640 convents of nuns with 13,000 sisters. The Discalced Carmelites currently have missions in Syria, Iraq, the East Indies, and South America, where over 100 priests, about fifty lay brothers, and a large number of Carmelite tertiaries are at work.
The Order of Discalced Carmelites observes the same rule as St Albert, but without the mitigations introduced by Pope Eugenius IV in 1432, and has its own constitutions: those of the Spanish Congregation were drawn up in 1593, and those of the Italian Congregation in 1599. The present constitutions, common to the whole Order, are those of the Italian Congregation, approved by the Holy See on 10 January 1928. The spirit of the Order is predominantly contemplative, though the Discalced Carmelites also engage in works of sacred ministry. Their rite is that of the Roman Church.
The holiness of the Reformed Carmel, both in its male and female branches, is manifested in its saints and blesseds, such as St Teresa of Jesus (v.), St John of the Cross (v.), St Teresa Margaret of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (v.), St Thérèse of the Child Jesus (v.), and the Blessed Martyrs Dionysius of the Nativity and Redemptus of the Cross (v.), Blessed Anne of St Bartholomew (v.), the Compiègne (v.), Blessed Mary of the Incarnation, Blessed Mary of the Angels (v.), and numerous others whose causes of beatification are under discussion or who died in the reputation of holiness.
In the sciences too, the Discalced Carmelites have made a significant contribution with works of high value. In philosophy, the authors of the famous *Cursus Complutensis* stand out first, namely the philosophical college of Alcalá de Henares, followed by an even grander work, the *Cursus Theologicus Salmanticensis* in 12 volumes in-folio, whose authors, Discalced Carmelites of the theological college of Salamanca, are the most faithful commentators of St Thomas Aquinas. In addition to this celebrated course, the Fathers of the Salamanca college also published a *Cursus Theologiae Moralis*, esteemed by experts. Among the philosophers and theologians of the Reformed Carmel worthy of special mention are Alessio di S. Aquilino, Eisentraut, scripturist (1732–85), Antonio della Madre di Dio, theologian (d. 1641), Antonio dello Spirito Santo, Carraca, theologian and bishop (1618–74), Blasius of the Conception, Riguet, philosopher (1603–94), Cassian of St Elia, Pallavicini, theologian (1629–1714), Dominic of the Holy Trinity, Tardy, theologian (1616–87), Frederick of Jesus, Schellhorn, theologian (1721–88), Philip of the Holy Trinity, Julien, philosopher, theologian, and mystic (1603–71), Gabriel of St Vincent, Beonio, theologian (1609–71), John of the Annunciation, Liones-Compomanes, theologian and philosopher (1633–1701), Hilary of St Anastasius, Vochet, controversialist (1589–1656), and the other famous controversialist Liberius of Jesus (1646–1719), Honorius of St Mary, Vauzelle, scripturist and critic (1651–1729), Paul of the Conception, Ximénez Navarro, theologian (1666–1734), Thaddeus of St Adam, Dereser, scripturist (1757–1827).
Among the missionaries of the Order there are also several who, with their grammars and dictionaries of various Eastern languages, occupy a not insignificant place among orientalists, such as Fr Clement of Jesus, Peano (1731–82), Celestine of St Lidwina, van Gool (1597–1676), Geminian of St Ottavia (1702–63), Stephen of SS Peter and Paul, Ruffi (1692–1767), as well as the famous Fr Paulinus of St Bartholomew, Weszdin (1748–1806), who published the first grammar of Sanskrit in Europe, and many other works of this kind.
But above all, the Discalced Carmelites excelled in mystical theology, in which they can cite the most celebrated writers of all time: St Teresa of Jesus and St John of the Cross, whose immortal works are not only true gems of Spanish national literature but indeed the principal source of mystical doctrine. Following these two mystics are the Venerable John of Jesus Mary (1564–1615), Thomas of Jesus, Sánchez Dávila (1564–1627), Philip of the Holy Trinity (1603–71), the two Josephs of the Holy Spirit, namely the Portuguese (1609–74) and the Spanish (1667–1736)—the latter being the author of the great *Cursus theologiae mysticae*—and many others.